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Sports

Zambia declared its independence on the day of the closing ceremony of the 1964 Summer Olympics, thereby becoming the first country ever to have entered an Olympic games as one country, and left it as another. HP Pavilion DV4-1111TX Battery Zambia took part in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Football is the most popular sport in Zambia, and the Zambia national football team has had its triumphant moments in football history. At the Seoul Olympics of 1988, the national team defeated the Italian national team by a score of 4–0. Kalusha Bwalya, HP Pavilion DV4-1112TX Battery Zambia's most celebrated football player and one of Africa's greatest football players in history had a hat trick in that match. However, to this day, many pundits say the greatest team Zambia has ever assembled was the one that perished on 28 April 1993 in a plane crash at Libreville, Gabon. HP Pavilion DV4-1113TX Battery Despite this, in 1996, Zambia was ranked 15th on the official FIFA World Football Team rankings, the highest attained by any Southern African team. In 2012 Zambia won the African Cup of Nations for the first time after losing in the final twice. HP Pavilion DV4-1114NR BatteryThey beat Ivory Coast 8-7 in a penalty shoot-out in the final, which was played in Libreville, just a few miles away from the plane crash 19 years previously.^[50] Rugby, boxing and cricket are also popular sports in Zambia. Notably, at one point in the early 2000s, HP Pavilion DV4-1114TX Battery the Australiaand South Africa national rugby teams were captained by players born in the same Lusaka hospital, George Gregan and Corné Krige. Zambia boasts having the highest rugby poles in the world, located at Luanshya Sports Complex in Luanshya.^{[citation needed]} Rugby union in Zambia is a minor but growing sport. HP Pavilion DV4-1115EF BatteryThey are currently ranked 73rd by the IRB and have 3,650 registered players and three formally organised clubs.^[51] Zambia used to play cricket as part of Rhodesia. Zambia has also strangely provided a shinty international, Zambian-born Eddie Tembo representing Scotland in the compromise rules Shinty/Hurling game against Ireland in 2008.^[52] HP Pavilion DV4-1115TX Battery In 2011, Zambia was due to host the tenth All-Africa Games, for which three stadiums were to be built in Lusaka, Ndola, and Livingstone.^[53] The Lusaka stadium will have a capacity of 70,000 spectators while the other two stadiums will hold 50,000 people each. HP Pavilion DV4-1116TX Battery The government is encouraging the private sector to get involved in the construction of the sports facilities because of a shortage of public funds for the project. Zambia has since revoked its bid to host the 2011 All-Africa Games, citing a lack of funds. Hence, Mozambique took Zambia's place as host. HP Pavilion DV4-1117CA Battery Zambia also produced the first black African (Madalitso Muthiya) to play in the United States Golf Open, one of the four major golf tournaments. Zambia is one of Sub-Saharan Africa's most highly urbanized countries. HP Pavilion DV4-1117TX Battery About one-half of the country's 11.5 million people are concentrated in a few urban zones strung along the major transportation corridors, while rural areas are under-populated. Unemployment and underemployment are serious problems. HP Pavilion DV4-1118CA Battery National GDP has actually doubled since independence, but due in large part to high birth rates and AIDS per capita annual incomes are currently at about two-thirds of their levels at independence. This low GDP per capita, which stands at $1400, places the country among the world's poorest nations. HP Pavilion DV4-1118TX Battery Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy atbirth (about 50 years) and maternal and infant mortality (85 per 1,000 live births). The high population growth rate of 2.3% per annum makes it difficult for per capita income to increase. HP Pavilion DV4-1119TX Battery The country's rate of economic growth cannot support rapid population growth or the strain which HIV/AIDS-related issues (i.e., rising medical costs, street children, and decline in worker productivity) places on government resources. HP Pavilion DV4-1120BR Battery For the first time since 1989 Zambia's economic growth reached the 6%-7% mark(in 2007) needed to reduce poverty significantly. Copper output has increased steadily since 2004, due to higher copper prices and the opening of new mines. The maize harvest was again good in 2005, helping boost GDP and agricultural exports. HP Pavilion DV4-1120TX Battery Cooperation continues with international bodies on programs to reduce poverty, including a new lending arrangement with the IMF in the second quarter of 2004. A tighter monetary policy will help cut inflation, but Zambia still has a serious problem with high public debt. Zambia was ranked the 127th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings. HP Pavilion DV4-1120US Battery

Economic policies soon after independence

At independence in 1964, Zambia's economy grew the British South Africa Company (BSAC, originally setup by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes) retained commercial assets and mineral rights that it acquired from a concession signed with the Litunga of Barotseland in 1892 (the Lochner Concession). HP Pavilion DV4-1121BR Battery Only by threatening to expropriate the BSAC, on the eve of independence, did the incoming Zambian government manage to get the BSAC to relinquish the mineral rights. The Federation's government assigned roles to each of the three territories: Southern Rhodesia was assigned the responsibility of providing managerial and administrative skills; HP Pavilion DV4-1121CA Battery Northern Rhodesia provided copper revenues; and Nyasaland provided the Black labour. After independence, Zambia followed in the steps of the Soviet Union by instituting a program of national development plans, under the direction of a National Commission for Development Planning: HP Pavilion DV4-1121TX Battery the Transitional Development Plan (1964–66) was followed by the First National Development Plan (1966–71). These two plans, which provided for major investment in infrastructure and manufacturing, were largely implemented and were generally successful. This was not true for subsequent plans.HP Pavilion DV4-1122TX Battery

The Mulungushi Economic Reforms (1968)

A major switch in the structure of Zambia's economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April 1968: the government declared its intention to acquire equity holdings (usually 51% or more) in a number of key foreign-owned firms, to be controlled by a parastatal conglomerate named the Industrial Development Corporation (INDECO). HP Pavilion DV4-1123LA Battery By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining corporations, the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesia Selection Trust (RST); the two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively. HP Pavilion DV4-1123TX Battery The Zambian government then created a new parastatal body, the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO). The Finance and Development Corporation (FINDECO) allowed the Zambian government to gain control of insurance companies and building societies. HP Pavilion DV4-1123US Battery However, foreign-owned banks (such as Barclays, Standard Chartered and Grindlays) successfully resisted takeover. In 1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in sub-Saharan Africa, HP Pavilion DV4-1124LA Battery with the country's president, Kenneth Kaunda as Chairman of the Board. The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were ended in 1973. In 1982 NCCM and RCM were merged into the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM). HP Pavilion DV4-1124NR BatteryUnfortunately for Kaunda and Zambia, the programs of nationalization were ill-timed. Events that were beyond their control soon wrecked the country's well-laid plans for economic and national development. In 1973 a massive increase in the price of oil was followed by a slump in copper prices in 1975, resulting in a diminution of export earnings. HP Pavilion DV4-1124TX Battery In 1973 the price of copper accounted for 95% of all export earnings; this halved in value on the world market in 1975. By 1976 Zambia had a balance-of-payments crisis, and rapidly became massively indebted to the International Monetary Fund (IMF). HP Pavilion DV4-1125BR Battery The Third National Development Plan (1978–83) had to be abandoned as crisis management replaced long-term planning. By the mid-1980s Zambia was one of the most indebted nations in the world, relative to its gross domestic product (GDP). HP Pavilion DV4-1125LA Battery The IMF was insisting that the Zambian government should introduce programs aimed at stabilizing the economy and restructuring it to reduce dependence on copper. The proposed measures included: the ending of price controls; devaluation of the kwacha (Zambia's currency); cut-backs in government expenditure; HP Pavilion DV4-1125NR Batterycancellation of subsidies on food and fertilizer; and increased prices for farm produce. Kaunda's removal of food subsidies caused massive increases in the prices of basic foodstuffs; the country's urbanized population rioted in protest. In desperation, Kaunda broke with the IMF in May 1987 and introduced a New Economic Recovery Programme in 1988. HP Pavilion DV4-1125TX Battery However, this did not help him and he eventually moved toward a new understanding with the IMF in 1989. In 1990, with the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (on which Kaunda's philosophy of Zambian Humanism had been fashioned), Kaunda was forced to make a major policy volteface: HP Pavilion DV4-1126LA Battery he announced the intention to partially privatize the parastatals. Time, however, was running out for him. As Mikhail Gorbachev announced perestroika and glasnost, small-time dictators who had copiedJoseph Stalin's policies had no choice but to realise that their days were numbered. HP Pavilion DV4-1126TX Battery This included Kaunda. Kaunda called multiparty elections in 1991, and lost them to the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD). Kaunda left office with the inauguration of MMD leader Frederick Chiluba as president on 2 November 1991. HP Pavilion DV4-1127LA Battery

Chiluba's economic reforms

The Frederick Chiluba government (1991–2001), which came to power after democratic multi-party elections in November 1991, was committed to extensive economic reform. The government privatised many state industries, and maintained positive real interest rates. HP Pavilion DV4-1127TX Battery Exchange controls were eliminated and free market principles endorsed. It remains to be seen whether the Mwanawasa government will follow a similar path of implementing economic reform and undertaking further privatization. HP Pavilion DV4-1128TX Battery Zambia has yet to address issues such as reducing the size of the public sector, which still represents 44% of total formal employment, and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems. HP Pavilion DV4-1129LA Battery After the government privatized the giant parastatal mining company Zambian Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM), donors resumed balance-of-payment support. The final transfer of ZCCM's assets occurred on March 31, 2000. HP Pavilion DV4-1129TX Battery Although balance-of-payment payments are not the answer to Zambia's long-term debt problems, it will in the short term provide the government some breathing room to implement further economic reforms. The government has, however, spent much of its foreign exchange reserves to intervene in the exchange rate mechanism. HP Pavilion DV4-1130BR Battery To continue to do so, however, would jeopardize Zambia's debt relief. Zambia qualified for HIPC debt relief in 2000, contingent upon the country meeting certain performance criteria, and this should offer a long-term solution to Zambia's debt situation. HP Pavilion DV4-1130TX Battery In January 2003, the Zambian Government informed the International Monetary Fund and World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities. HP Pavilion DV4-1131BR Battery

Copper

The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper-mining industry. The discovery of copper is owed partly to Frederick Russell Burnham, the famous American scout who worked for Cecil Rhodes.^[5] HP Pavilion DV4-1131TX Battery By 1998, however, output of copper had fallen to a low of 228,000 tonnes, continuing a 30-year decline in output due to lack of investment, and until recently, low copper prices and uncertainty over privatization. HP Pavilion DV4-1132TX Battery In 2001, the first full year of a privatized industry, Zambia recorded its first year of increased productivity since 1973. The future of the copper industry in Zambia was thrown into doubt in January 2002, when investors in Zambia's largest copper mine announced their intention to withdraw their investment. HP Pavilion DV4-1133TX BatteryHowever, surging copper prices from 2004 to the present day rapidly rekindled international interest in Zambia's copper sector with a new buyer found for KCCM and massive investments in expanding capacity launched. HP Pavilion DV4-1134TX Battery China has become a major investor in the Zambian copper industry, and in February 2007, the two countries announced the creation of a Chinese-Zambian economic partnership zone around the Chambishi copper mine.^[6][7] HP Pavilion DV4-1135BR Battery Today copper mining is central to the economic prospects for Zambia, but concerns remain that the economy is not diversified enough to cope with a collapse in international copper prices. HP Pavilion DV4-1135EE Battery

Inflation

Lack of balance-of-payment support meant the Zambian government did not have resources for capital investment and periodically had to issue bonds or otherwise expand the money supply to try to meet its spending and debt obligations. HP Pavilion DV4-1135EI Battery The government continued these activities even after balance-of-payment support resumed. This has kept interest rates at levels that are too high for local business, fuelled inflation, burdened the budget with domestic debt payments, while still falling short of meeting the public payroll and other needs, such as infrastructure rehabilitation. HP Pavilion DV4-1135TX Battery The government was forced to draw down foreign exchange reserves sharply in 1998 to meet foreign debt obligations, putting further pressure on the kwacha and inflation. Inflation held at 32% in 2000; consequently, the kwacha lost the same value against the dollar over the same period. HP Pavilion DV4-1136BR Battery In mid- to late 2001, Zambia's fiscal management became more conservative. As a result, 2001 year-end inflation was below 20%, its best result in decades. In 2002 inflation rose to 26.7%. However in 2007 inflation hit 8%, the first time in 30 years that Zambia had seen single digit inflation.^[8][9] HP Pavilion DV4-1136TX Battery On January 27, 2011, it was reported by the Central Statistical Office that inflation rose to 9%.^[10]

Agriculture

The agriculture sector represented 20% GDP in 2000. Agriculture accounted for 85% of total employment (formal and informal) for 2000. HP Pavilion DV4-1137TX Battery Maize (corn) is the principalcash crop as well as the staple food. Other important crops include soybean, cotton, sugar, sunflower seeds, wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, cassava, tobacco and various vegetable and fruit crops. HP Pavilion DV4-1138TX BatteryFloriculture is a growth sector, and agricultural non-traditional exports now rival the mining industry in foreign exchange receipts. Zambia has the potential for significantly increasing its agricultural output; currently, less than 20% of its arable land is cultivated. HP Pavilion DV4-1139TX Battery In the past, the agriculture sector suffered from low producer prices, difficulties in availability and distribution of credit and inputs, and the shortage of foreign exchange.

Growth

There are, however, positive macroeconomic signs, rooted in reforms implemented in the early and mid-1990s. Zambia's floating exchange rate and open capital marketshave provided useful discipline on the government, HP Pavilion DV4-1140EK Battery while at the same time allowing continued diversification of Zambia's export sector, growth in the tourist industry, and procurement of inputs for growing businesses. Some parts of the Copper Belt have experienced a significant revival as spin-off effects from the massive capital reinvestment are experienced. HP Pavilion DV4-1140GO Battery

Salaula (second-hand clothing imported from the West)

Standard economic theory and empirical data indicates that second-hand clothing import can have positive effects in a country like Zambia (one of the least developed countries in the world). HP Pavilion DV4-1140TX Battery The salaula market reduces the proportion of income that a family has to spend on clothing. It also helps to keep employments like repairs and alterations in business and forces tailors to proceed into more specialize production of styled garments.^[11] HP Pavilion DV4-1141TX Battery There is a downside to such imports, however; the massive importation of used clothing from the developed world has resulted in a near-total collapse of the Zambian indigenous textile industry. HP Pavilion DV4-1142TX Battery In the face of cheap used clothing, tailors' specialized production may be irrelevant - customers will buy the least expensive clothing available, irrespective of style. Those who might otherwise work at textile mills or clothing factories are left jobless, or else make significantly less money in the salaula resale business. HP Pavilion DV4-1143GO BatteryThe climate of Zambia in Central and Southern Africa is tropical modified by altitude (elevation). In the Köppen climate classification, most of the country is classified as humid subtropical or tropical wet and dry, with small patches of semi-arid steppe climate in the south-west. HP Pavilion DV4-1143TX Battery Climate and specifically rainfall amount is the chief determinant of type and distribution of the ecoregions of Zambia.

Seasons

There are two main seasons, the rainy season (November to April) corresponding to summer, and the dry season (May to October/November), corresponding to winter. HP Pavilion DV4-1144TX Battery The dry season is subdivided into the cool dry season (May to August), and the hot dry season (September to October/November). The modifying influence of altitude gives the country pleasant subtropical weather rather than tropical conditions for most of the year. HP Pavilion DV4-1144US Battery

Rainy season

Rainfall varies over a range of 500 to 1,400 mm (19.7 to 55.1 in) per year (most areas fall into the range 700 to 1,200 mm/27.6 to 47.2 in). The distinction between rainy and dry seasons is marked, with no rain at all falling in June, July and August. HP Pavilion DV4-1145BR BatteryMuch of the economic, cultural and social life of the country is dominated by the onset and end of the rainy season, and the amount of rain it brings. Failure of the rains causes famine from time to time. The average tempature in Zambia in the winter (more colder season) is 125oF and in the summer it can get as low as 5oF. HP Pavilion DV4-1145GO Battery The rains are brought by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and are characterised by thunderstorms, occasionally severe, with much lightning and sometimes hail. The ITCZ is located north of Zambia in the dry season. It moves southwards in the second half of the year, and northwards in the first half of the year. HP Pavilion DV4-1145TX Battery In some years, it moves south of Zambia, leading to a "little dry season" in the north of the country for three or four weeks in December. The highest rainfall is in the north, especially the north-west and the north-east, decreasing towards the south; HP Pavilion DV4-1146TX Battery the driest areas are in the far south west and theLuangwa River and middle Zambezi River valleys, parts of which are considered semi-arid. None of the country is considered arid or to be desert. Flooding is an annual event on floodplains, to which people and wildlife are adapted. HP Pavilion DV4-1147CL Battery Flash floods after unusually heavy rain cause damage when they occur in places that do not experience annual floods. Erosion and the washing out of roads and bridges are common. Crops are frequently damaged by flooding and hail. HP Pavilion DV4-1147TX Battery Too much rain when the maize crop is flowering, or late in the season when it should be drying off prior to harvest can be very damaging and promotes rotting of stored grain.

Plant and animal adaptations

Deciduous trees which lose leaves in the dry season to conserve water predominate over evergreens which have waxy leaf cuticles for the same purpose. HP Pavilion DV4-1148TX Battery The deciduous trees usually produce fresh green or reddish leaves just before the rainy season. Grasses and some other herbaceous plants dry up above ground but regenerate quickly with the onset of rains from roots and tubers, etc. Except for those living in areas of permanent freshwater, animals are adapted to the long dry season, as seen in migration and breeding patterns. HP Pavilion DV4-1149TX Battery

Bushfires

In the middle to late dry season, bushfires are prevalent, and smoke is noticeable by smell and as a haze. The fires are ignited by villagers hunting, burning crop residue, and preparing chitemene gardens; HP Pavilion DV4-1150BR Battery or by lightning in the early rainy season. Because such fires happen annually, there is no great build up of dry fuel in the bush, and so the fires are not usually devastating. They may kill animals, and damage crops if the rains end early and fires happen before harvest. HP Pavilion DV4-1150EO Battery The presence of fire-adapted plants and palaeoecological studies indicate that such fires have happened for millennia.

Water sources in the dry season

Most rivers, lakes and swamps, except in the far south and south-west, are permanent. HP Pavilion DV4-1150EP Battery In addition, dambos (grasslands which become marshy in the rainy season) are prevalent in most of the country and water is usually available in them from springs or shallow wells. Dambos also release groundwater to streams and rivers towards the end of the dry season, keeping them flowing permanently. HP Pavilion DV4-1150ER Battery Small earth dams are often constructed in dambos as a source of water and as fishponds. For the human population, the location of rural settlements is determined by access to water in the dry season (though boreholes are now commonly used to augment supplies). HP Pavilion DV4-1150ES Battery Traditionally, people have also migrated in the drier areas where rivers dambos are not prevalent. In Barotseland, people move with their livestock, grazing them on the Barotse Floodplain in the dry season and moving to higher ground at the margins during the rainy season. HP Pavilion DV4-1150TX Battery The ability to grow enough food in the rainy season to last the long dry season is also a factor in population distribution. Traditionally some communities have divided the year into farming in the rainy season, and fishing and hunting in the dry season, when herbivores can be found more easily as they visit sources of water, HP Pavilion DV4-1151TX Battery and fires can be set to expose them or drive them into traps.

Temperature

The elevation of the great plateau on which Zambia is located, typically between 1,000 and 1,300 metres (3,281 and 4,265 ft), modifies temperatures, which are lower than for coastal areas at the same latitude, and pleasant for much of the year. HP Pavilion DV4-1152TX BatteryMost of the country is frost-free but in some years ground frost occurs. This is restricted to the highest exposed hills, or more widely in the lower humidity areas of the southernmost parts of the country. HP Pavilion DV4-1153TX Battery Temperatures are higher at lower elevations, such as the Luapula-Mweru and Mweru Wantipa/Tanganyika valleys in the north, and highest in the lower Luangwa and Zambezi valleys in the south, typically experiencing 40 °C (104 °F) in October, with rising humidity making for uncomfortable conditions. HP Pavilion DV4-1154TX Battery During the rainy season months of November to April or May some days may be humid, but daily maximum temperatures are usually a little lower than in the hot dry season. The rain can be cooling, unlike in the humid tropics. HP Pavilion DV4-1155SE Battery

Wind

Prevailing winds in the dry season are generally moderate but occasionally more severe and may bring cool dust-laden air from distant arid regions. Whirlwinds are very common but not usually destructive; waterspouts can be seen over lakes. HP Pavilion DV4-1155TX Battery In the rainy season, winds are localised with thunderstorms and may be destructive but usually confined to small areas, such as blowing roofs off buildings. The country does not suffer tornadoes or cyclones of widespread destructive force. HP Pavilion DV4-1156TX BatteryDavid Livingstone, the Scottish missionary and explorer, is believed to have been the first European to view the Victoria Falls — which he did from what is now known as 'Livingstone Island' in Zambia, the only land accessible in the middle of the falls.^[1] HP Pavilion DV4-1157TX Battery David Livingstone gave the falls the name 'Victoria Falls' in honor of his Queen, but the indigenous name of 'Mosi-oa-Tunya' — literally meaning the 'Smoke that Thunders' — is also well known. The World Heritage List recognizes both names.^[2] HP Pavilion DV4-1158TX Battery

Size

While it is neither the highest nor the widest waterfall in the world, it is claimed to be the largest. This claim is based on a width of 1,708 metres (5,604 ft)^[3] and height of 108 metres (354 ft), forming the largest sheet of falling water in the world. HP Pavilion DV4-1159TX Battery The falls' maximum flow rate compares well with that of other major waterfalls (see table below).^[2] For a considerable distance upstream from the falls, the Zambezi flows over a level sheet of basalt, in a shallow valleybounded by low and distant sandstone hills. HP Pavilion DV4-1160ES Battery The river's course is dotted with numerous tree-covered islands, which increase in number as the river approaches the falls. There are no mountains, escarpments, or deep valleys which might be expected to create a waterfall, only flat plateau extending hundreds of kilometres in all directions. HP Pavilion DV4-1160TX Battery The falls are formed as the full width of the river plummets in a single vertical drop into a transverse chasm 1708 metres (5604 ft) wide, carved by its waters along a fracture zone in the basalt plateau. The depth of the chasm, called the First Gorge, varies from 80 metres (260 ft) at its western end to 108 metres (354 ft) in the centre. HP Pavilion DV4-1161TX Battery The only outlet to the First Gorge is a 110 metres (360 ft) wide gap about two-thirds of the way across the width of the falls from the western end, through which the whole volume of the river pours into the Victoria Falls gorges. There are two islands on the crest of the falls that are large enough to divide the curtain of water even at full flood: HP Pavilion DV4-1162TX Battery Boaruka Island (or Cataract Island) near the western bank, and Livingstone Island near the middle — the place that David Livingstone first saw the falls from in Zambia. At less than full flood, additional islets divide the curtain of water into separate parallel streams. HP Pavilion DV4-1163TX Battery The main streams are named, in order from Zimbabwe (west) to Zambia (east): Devil's Cataract(called Leaping Water by some), Main Falls, Rainbow Falls (the highest) and the Eastern Cataract The Zambezi basin above the falls experiences a rainy season from late November to early April, and a dry season the rest of the year. HP Pavilion DV4-1164TX Battery The river's annual flood season is February to May with a peak in April,^[4] The spray from the falls typically rises to a height of over 400 metres (1,300 ft), and sometimes even twice as high, and is visible from up to 50 km (31 mi) away. At full moon, a "moonbow" can be seen in the spray instead of the usual daylight rainbow. HP Pavilion DV4-1165TX Battery During the flood season, however, it is impossible to see the foot of the falls and most of its face, and the walks along the cliff opposite it are in a constant shower and shrouded in mist. Close to the edge of the cliff, spray shoots upward like inverted rain, especially at Zambia's Knife-Edge Bridge.^[5] HP Pavilion DV4-1166CA Battery As the dry season takes effect, the islets on the crest become wider and more numerous, and in September to January up to half of the rocky face of the falls may become dry and the bottom of the First Gorge can be seen along most of its length. At this time it becomes possible (though not necessarily safe) to walk across some stretches of the river at the crest. HP Pavilion DV4-1166TX Battery It is also possible to walk to the bottom of the First Gorge at the Zimbabwean side. The minimum flow, which occurs in November, is around a tenth of the April figure; this variation in flow is greater than that of other major falls, and causes Victoria Falls' annual average flow rate to be lower than might be expected based on the maximum flow.^[5] HP Pavilion DV4-1167TX Battery Victoria Falls is roughly twice the height of North America'sNiagara Falls and well over twice the width of its Horseshoe Falls. In height and width Victoria Falls is rivalled only by South America's Iguazu Falls. See table for comparisons. HP Pavilion DV4-1168TX Battery

The Victoria Falls Gorges

The whole volume of the Zambezi River pours through the First Gorge's 110-meter-wide (360 ft) exit for a distance of about 150 meters (500 ft), then enters a zigzagging series of gorges designated by the order in which the river reaches them. HP Pavilion DV4-1169TX Battery Water entering the Second Gorge makes a sharp right turn and has carved out a deep pool there called the Boiling Pot. Reached via a steep footpath from the Zambian side, it is about 150 metres (500 ft) across. Its surface is smooth at low water, but at high water is marked by enormous, slow swirls and heavy boiling turbulence.^[5] HP Pavilion DV4-1180BR BatteryObjects—and humans—that are swept over the falls, including the occasional hippo, are frequently found swirling about here or washed up at the north-east end of the Second Gorge. This is where the bodies of Mrs Moss and Mr Orchard, mutilated by crocodiles, were found in 1910 after two canoes were capsized by a hippo at Long Island above the falls. HP Pavilion DV4-1190BR Battery he recent geological history of Victoria Falls can be seen in the form of the gorges below the falls. The basalt plateau over which the Upper Zambezi flows has many large cracks filled with weaker sandstone. In the area of the current falls the largest cracks run roughly east to west (some run nearly north-east to south-west), with smaller north-south cracks connecting them. HP Pavilion DV4-1190EA Battery Over at least 100,000 years, the falls have been receding upstream through the Batoka Gorges, eroding the sandstone-filled cracks to form the gorges. The river's course in the current vicinity of the falls is north to south, so it opens up the large east-west cracks across its full width, then it cuts back through a short north-south crack to the next east-west one. HP Pavilion DV4-1190EJ Battery The river has fallen in different eras into different chasms which now form a series of sharply zig-zagging gorges downstream from the falls.^[5] Ignoring some dry sections, the Second to Fifth and the Songwe Gorges each represents a past site of the falls at a time when they fell into one long straight chasm as they do now.^[5] HP Pavilion DV4-1190EL Battery Their sizes indicate that we are not living in the age of the widest-ever falls. The falls have already started cutting back the next major gorge, at the dip in one side of the "Devil's Cataract" (also known as "Leaping Waters") section of the falls. This is not actually a north-south crack, but a large east-northeast liHP Pavilion DV4-1198ER Battery ne of weakness across the river, where the next full-width falls will eventually form. Further geological history of the course of the Zambezi River is in the article of that name.

Pre-colonial history

Archaeological sites around the falls have yielded Homo habilis stone artifacts from 3 million years ago, HP Pavilion DV4-1199EA Battery 50,000-year-old Middle Stone Age tools and Late Stone Age (10,000 and 2,000 years ago) weapons, adornments and digging tools.^[8] Iron-using Khoisan hunter-gatherers displaced these Stone Age people and in turn were displaced by Bantu tribes such as the southern Tonga people known as the Batoka/Tokalea, who called the falls Shungu na mutitima. HP Pavilion DV4-1199EE Battery The Matabele, later arrivals, named them aManz' aThunqayo, and the Batswana and Makololo (whose language is used by the Lozi people) call them Mosi-o-Tunya. All these names mean essentially "the smoke that thunders".^[9] HP Pavilion DV4-1199EF Battery The first European to see the falls was David Livingstone on 17 November 1855, during his 1852–56 journey from the upper Zambezi to the mouth of the river. The falls were well known to local tribes, and Voortrekker hunters may have known of them, as may the Arabs under a name equivalent to "the end of the world". HP Pavilion DV4-1199EO Battery Europeans were sceptical of their reports, perhaps thinking that the lack of mountains and valleys on the plateau made a large falls unlikely.^[10][11] Livingstone had been told about the falls before he reached them from upriver and was paddled across to a small island that now bears the name Livingstone Island in Zambia. HP Pavilion DV4-1199EP Battery Livingstone had previously been impressed by the Ngonye Falls further upstream, but found the new falls much more impressive, and gave them their English name in honour of Queen Victoria. He wrote of the falls, "No one can imagine the beauty of the view from anything witnessed in England. HP Pavilion DV4-1199ER Battery It had never been seen before by European eyes; but scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight."^[5]In 1860, Livingstone returned to the area and made a detailed study of the falls with John Kirk.HP Pavilion DV4-1199ES Battery Other early European visitors included Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto, Czech explorer Emil Holub, who made the first detailed plan of the falls and its surroundings in 1875 (published in 1880),^[12] and British artist Thomas Baines, who executed some of the earliest paintings of the falls. HP Pavilion DV4-1199ET Battery Until the area was opened up by the building of the railway in 1905, though, the falls were seldom visited by other Europeans. HP Pavilion DV4-1200 CTO Battery,HP Pavilion DV4-1200 Battery,HP Pavilion DV4-1201AU Battery,HP Pavilion DV4-1201TU Battery,HP Pavilion DV4-1201TX Battery

Zambia , officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. The neighbouring countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east,Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia to the south, and Angola to the west. HP Pavilion DV4 Battery The capital city is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of the country. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and theCopperbelt Province to the northwest. Originally inhabited by Khoisan peoples, the region which comprises modern Zambia was colonised during the Bantu expansion of the thirteenth century. HP Pavilion DV4-1000 Battery After visits by European explorers in the eighteenth century, Zambia became the British colony of Northern Rhodesia towards the end of the nineteenth century. For most of the colonial period, the country was governed by an administration appointed from London with the advice of the British South Africa Company. HP Pavilion DV4-1000EA Battery On 24 October 1964, the country declared independence from the United Kingdom and then-prime minister Kenneth Kaundabecame the inaugural president. Kaunda's socialist United National Independence Party (UNIP) maintained power from the 1964 until 1991. HP Pavilion DV4-1000ET Battery From 1972 to 1991 Zambia was a single-party state with the UNIP as the sole-legal political party, with the goal of uniting the nation under the banner of 'One Zambia, One Nation'. Kaunda was succeeded by Frederick Chilubaof the social-democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy in 1991, during which the country saw a rise in social-economic growth and increased decentralisation of government. HP Pavilion DV4-1001 Battery Chiluba's privatisation of the mines backfired when investors closed operations. He attempted to run for an unconstitutional third term, which was stopped by mass protests. Chiluba selected Levy Mwanawasa as his successor, Mwanawasa presided over the country from January 2002 until his death in August 2008. HP Pavilion DV4-1001AX Battery Mwanawasa is credited with initiating a campaign to reduce corruption and increase the standard of living from those left by his predecessor. After Mwanawasa's death, Rupiah Banda presided as Acting President before being elected president in 2008. He is the shortest serving president, having held office for only three years. HP Pavilion DV4-1001TU Battery Patriotic Front party leader, Michael Chilufya Sata defeated Banda in the 2011 elections. In 2010, the World Bank named Zambia one of the world's fastest economically reformed countries. The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) is headquartered in the capital Lusaka. HP Pavilion DV4-1001TX Battery

Etymology

The territory of what is now Zambia was known as Northern Rhodesia from 1911. It was renamed Zambia on the occasion of its independence, in 1964. HP Pavilion DV4-1002 Battery The new name of Zambia was derived from the Zambezi river (Zambezi may mean "God's river") which flows through the western region of the country and forms its southern border. The area of modern Zambia was inhabited by Khoisan hunter-gatherers until around AD 300, HP Pavilion DV4-1002AX Battery when more technologically advanced migrating ethnic groupsbegan to displace or absorb them.^[5] In the 12th century, major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants arrived during the Bantu expansion. Among them, the Tonga people (also called Ba-Tonga, "Ba-" meaning "woman") were the first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the east near the "big sea".HP Pavilion DV4-1002TU Battery The Nkoya people also arrived early in the expansion,^[6][7] coming from the Luba–Lunda kingdoms located in the southern parts of the modern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Angola, followed by a much larger influx, especially between the late 12th and early 13th centuries. HP Pavilion DV4-1002TX Battery In the early 19th century, the Nsokolo people settled in the Mbala district of Northern Province. During the 19th century, the Ngoni and Sotho peoples arrived from the south. By the late 19th century, most of the various peoples of Zambia were established in the areas they currently occupy. The arrival of Europeans was just yet another such influx. HP Pavilion DV4-1003AX Battery The earliest account of a European visiting the area was Francisco de Lacerda in the late 18th century, followed by other European visitors in the 19th century. The most prominent of these was David Livingstone, who had a vision of ending the slave tradethrough the "3 Cs" (Christianity, Commerce and Civilization). HP Pavilion DV4-1003TU Battery He was the first European to see the magnificent waterfall on the Zambezi River in 1855, naming them "Victoria Falls" after Queen Victoria - he described them thus: "Scenes so loovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight". Locally the falls are known as "Mosi-o-Tunya" or "(the) thundering smoke" (in the Lozi or Kololo dialect). HP Pavilion DV4-1003TX Battery The town of Livingstone, near the Falls, is named after him. Highly publicised accounts of his journeys motivated a wave of European visitors, missionaries and traders after his death in 1873.^[8][9] In 1888, the British South Africa Company (BSA Company), led by Cecil Rhodes, obtained mineral rights from the Litunga, HP Pavilion DV4-1004AX Battery the Paramount Chief of the Lozi or Ba-rotse for the area which later became North-Western Rhodesia.^[10] To the east, in December 1897 a section of the Angoni or Ngoni (originally from Zululand) under Tsinco, the son of King Mpezeni, rebelled, but the rebellion was put down,^[11] and Mpezeni accepted the Pax Britannica. HP Pavilion DV4-1004TU Battery That part of the country then came to be known as North-Eastern Rhodesia. In 1895, Rhodes asked his American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the region, and it was during this trek that Burnham discovered major copper deposits along the Kafue River.^[12] HP Pavilion DV4-1004TX Battery North-Eastern Rhodesia and North-Western Rhodesia were administered as separate units until 1911 when they were merged to form the British Colony of Northern Rhodesia. In 1923, the BSA Company ceded control of Northern Rhodesia to the British Government after the government decided not to renew the Company's charter. HP Pavilion DV4-1005TX Battery That same year, Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), a conquered territory which was also administered by the BSA Company, became a self-governing British Dominion. In 1924, after negotiations, administration of Northern Rhodesia transferred to the British Colonial Office. HP Pavilion DV4-1006TX Battery In 1953, the creation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland grouped together Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland(now Malawi) as a single semi-autonomous region. This was undertaken despite opposition from a sizeable minority of the population, who demonstrated against it in 1960–61.^[13] HP Pavilion DV4-1007TX Battery Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis characterizing the federation in its last years. Initially, Harry Nkumbula's African National Congress (ANC) led the campaign that Kenneth Kaunda's United National Independence Party (UNIP) subsequently took up. HP Pavilion DV4-1008TX Battery A two-stage election held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new National Assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. HP Pavilion DV4-1009TX Battery The federation was dissolved on 31 December 1963, and in January 1964, Kaunda won the first and only election for Prime Minister of Northern Rhodesia. The Colonial Governor, Sir Evelyn Hone, was very close to Kaunda and urged him to stand for the post. HP Pavilion DV4-1010TX Battery Soon after, there was an uprising in the north of the country known as the Lumpa Uprising led by Alice Lenshina – Kaunda's first internal conflict as leader of the nation. Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964, with Kaunda as the first president. HP Pavilion DV4-1011TX Battery At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. HP Pavilion DV4-1012TX Battery There were over 70,000 British in Zambia in 1964, who were of great economic importance.^[14] During the next decade, Kaunda's regime supported movements such as UNITA in Angola; the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU); theAfrican National Congress (ANC) in South Africa; HP Pavilion DV4-1013TX Battery and the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO).^{[citation needed]} Kaunda developed close relations withcommunist regimes in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. Kaunda also developed a close friendship with Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein.^[ HP Pavilion DV4-1014NR Battery Kaunda's support for the insurgents attacking neighbouring Rhodesia, and the setting up of training camps for them in Zambia resulted in cross-border raids in both directions, leading to the closure of the border with Rhodesia in 1973 and severe problems with international transport and power supply. HP Pavilion DV4-1014TX Battery However, the Kariba hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity (despite the fact that the control centre was on the Rhodesian side of the border). A railway to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam, built with Chinese assistance, HP Pavilion DV4-1015TX Battery reduced Zambian dependence on railway lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly troubled Angola. Until the completion of the railway, however, Zambia's major artery for imports and the critical export of copper was along the TanZam Road, running from Zambia to the port cities in Tanzania. HP Pavilion DV4-1015TX Battery The Tazama oil pipeline was also built from Dar es Salaam to Ndola in Zambia. By the late 1970s, Mozambique and Angola had attained independence from Portugal. Zimbabwe achieved independence in 1980 in accordance with the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. Zambia's problems, however, were not solved. HP Pavilion DV4-1016TX Battery Civil war in the former Portuguese colonies created an influx of refugees and caused continuing transportation problems. The Benguela railway, which extended west through Angola, was essentially closed to traffic from Zambia by the late 1970s. Zambia's strong support for the ANC HP Pavilion DV4-1017TX Battery (despite both the Zambian ANC and the SA ANC being banned within Zambia), which had its external headquarters in Lusaka, created security problems as South Africa raided South African ANC military training camps in Zambia. In the mid-1970s, the price of copper, Zambia's principal export, suffered a severe decline worldwide. HP Pavilion DV4-1018TX Battery In Zambia's situation, the cost of transporting the copper great distances to market was an additional strain. Zambia turned to foreign and international lenders for relief, but, as copper prices remained depressed, it became increasingly difficult to service its growing debt, particularly as much aid was syphoned off into Swiss bank accounts. HP Pavilion DV4-1019TX Battery By the mid-1990s, despite limited debt relief, Zambia's per capita foreign debt remained among the highest in the world. In June 1990 riots against Kaunda accelerated. Many protesters were killed by the regime in breakthrough June 1990 protests. HP Pavilion DV4-1020TX Battery In 1990 Kaunda survived an attempted coup, and in 1991 he agreed to re-instate multiparty democracy (having instituted one party rule under the Chona Commission of 1972) and following multiparty elections Kaunda was removed from office (see below). In the 2000s, the economy stabilized, attaining single-digit inflation in 2006–2007, HP Pavilion DV4-1020US Battery real GDP growth, decreasing interest rates, and increasing levels of trade. Much of its growth is due to foreign investment in Zambia's mining sector and higher copper prices on the world market. All this led to Zambia being courted enthusiastically by aid donors, and saw a surge in investor confidence in the country. HP Pavilion DV4-1021TX Battery

Politics

Zambian politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Zambia is bothhead of state and head of government in a pluriform multi-party system. HP Pavilion DV4-1022TX Battery The government exercises executive power, while legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Zambia became a republic immediately upon attaining independence in October 1964. Zambia's current president is H.E. Michael Chilufya Sata. HP Pavilion DV4-1023TX Battery

Subdivisions

Zambia is divided into nine provinces, each administered by an appointed deputy minister. Each province is subdivided into severaldistricts with a grand total of 72 districts. The provinces are: HP Pavilion DV4-1024TX Battery

Geography

Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa, with a tropical climate and consists mostly of high plateau, with some hills and mountains, dissected by river valleys. At 752,614 km² (290,586 sq mi) it is the 39th-largest country in the world (after Chile) and slightly larger than the US state of Texas. HP Pavilion DV4-1025TX Battery The country lies mostly between latitudes 8°and 18°S, and longitudes 22° and 34°E. Zambia is drained by two major river basins: the Zambezi/Kafue basin in the centre, west and south covering about three-quarters of the country; and the Congo basin in the north covering about one-quarter of the country. HP Pavilion DV4-1026TX Battery A very small area in the northeast forms part of the internal drainage basin of Lake Rukwa in Tanzania. In the Zambezi basin, there are a number of major rivers flowing wholly or partially through Zambia: the Kabompo, Lungwebungu, Kafue, Luangwa, and the Zambezi itself, HP Pavilion DV4-1027TX Battery which flows through the country in the west and then forms its southern border with Namibia,Botswana and Zimbabwe. Its source is in Zambia but it diverts into Angola, and a number of its tributaries rise in Angola's central highlands. The edge of the Cuando River floodplain (not its main channel) forms Zambia's southwestern border, HP Pavilion DV4-1028TX Battery and via the Chobe River that river contributes very little water to the Zambezi because most is lost by evaporation.^[16] Two of the Zambezi's longest and largest tributaries, the Kafue and the Luangwa, flow mainly in Zambia. HP Pavilion DV4-1028US Battery Their confluences with the Zambezi are on the border with Zimbabwe at Chirundu and Luangwa town respectively. Before its confluence, the Luangwa River forms part of Zambia's border with Mozambique. From Luangwa town, the Zambezi leaves Zambia and flows into Mozambique, and eventually into the Mozambique Channel. HP Pavilion DV4-1029TX Battery The Zambezi falls about 100 metres (328 ft) over the 1.6 km (0.99 mi) wide Victoria Falls, located in the south-west corner of the country, subsequently flowing intoLake Kariba. The Zambezi valley, running along the southern border, is both deep and wide. HP Pavilion DV4-1030EE Battery From Lake Kariba going east it is formed by grabens and like the Luangwa, Mweru-Luapula, Mweru-wa-Ntipa and Lake Tanganyika valleys, is a rift valley. The north of Zambia is very flat with broad plains. HP Pavilion DV4-1030EI Battery In the west the most notable being the Barotse Floodplain on the Zambezi, which floods from December to June, lagging behind the annual rainy season (typically November to April). Theflood dominates the natural environment and the lives, society and culture of the inhabitants and those of other smaller, floodplains throughout the country. HP Pavilion DV4-1030EJ Battery In Eastern Zambia the plateau which extends between the Zambezi and Lake Tanganyika valleys is tilted upwards to the north, and so rises imperceptibly from about 900 m (2,953 ft) in the south to 1,200 m (3,937 ft) in the centre, reaching 1,800 m (5,906 ft) in the north near Mbala. HP Pavilion DV4-1030EN Battery These plateau areas of northern Zambia have been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as a large section of the Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands ecoregion. Eastern Zambia shows great diversity. HP Pavilion DV4-1030TX Battery The Luangwa Valley splits the plateau in a curve north east to south west, extended west into the heart of the plateau by the deep valley of the Lunsemfwa River. Hills and mountains are found by the side of some sections of the valley, notably in its north-east the Nyika Plateau (2,200 m/7,218 ft) on the Malawi border, which extend into Zambia as the Mafinga Hills, HP Pavilion DV4-1031TX Battery containing the country's highest point, Kongera (2,187 m/7,175 ft). The Muchinga Mountains, the watershed between the Zambezi and Congo drainage basins, run parallel to the deep valley of the Luangwa River and form a sharp backdrop to its northern edge, although they are almost everywhere below 1,700 m (5,577 ft). HP Pavilion DV4-1032TX Battery Their culminating peak Mumpu is at the western end and at 1,892 m (6,207 ft) is the highest point in Zambia away from the eastern border region. The border of the Congo Pedicle was drawn around this mountain. HP Pavilion DV4-1033TX Battery The southernmost headstream of the Congo River rises in Zambia and flows west through its northern area firstly as the Chambeshi and then, after the Bangweulu Swampsas the Luapula, which forms part of the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Luapula flows south then west before it turns north until it entersLake Mweru. HP Pavilion DV4-1034TX Battery The lake's other major tributary is the Kalungwishi River, which flows into it from the east. The Luvua River drains Lake Mweru, flowing out of the northern end to the Lualaba River (Upper Congo River). Lake Tanganyika is the other major hydrographic feature that belongs to the Congo basin. HP Pavilion DV4-1035LA Battery Its south-eastern end receives water from the Kalambo River, which forms part of Zambia's border with Tanzania. This river has Africa's second highest uninterrupted waterfall, the Kalambo Falls.

Climate

The climate of Zambia is tropical modified by elevation. HP Pavilion DV4-1035TX Battery In the Köppen climate classification, most of the country is classified as humid subtropical or tropical wet and dry, with small stretches of semi-arid steppe climate in the south-west and along the Zambezi valley. There are two main seasons, the rainy season (November to April) corresponding to summer, HP Pavilion DV4-1036TX Battery and the dry season (May/June to October/November), corresponding to winter. The dry season is subdivided into the cool dry season (May/June to August), and the hot dry season (September to October/November). The modifying influence of altitude gives the country pleasant subtropical weather rather than tropical conditions during the cool season of May to August.^[17] HP Pavilion DV4-1037TX Battery However, average monthly temperatures remain above 20 °C (68 °F) over most of the country for eight or more months of the year.

Demographics

Zambia is one of the most highly urbanized countries in sub-Saharan Africa with 44% of the population concentrated in a few urban areas along the major transport corridors, HP Pavilion DV4-1038TX Battery while rural areas are sparsely populated. Unemployment and underemployment in urban areas are serious problems, while most rural Zambians are subsistence farmers. The population comprises approximately 72 ethnic groups, most of which are Bantu-speaking. HP Pavilion DV4-1039TX Battery Almost 90% of Zambians belong to the nine main ethnolinguistic groups: the Nyanja-Chewa, Bemba, Tonga, Tumbuka, Lunda,Luvale, Kaonde, Nkoya and Lozi. In the rural areas, each ethnic group is concentrated in a particular geographic region of the country and many groups are very small and not as well known. HP Pavilion DV4-1040EE Battery However, all the ethnic groups can be found in significant numbers in Lusaka and the Copperbelt. Expatriates, mostly British or South African, as well as some white Zambian citizens, live mainly in Lusaka and in the Copperbelt in northern Zambia, HP Pavilion DV4-1040EI Battery where they are either employed in mines, financial and related activities or retired. There were 70,000 Europeans in Zambia in 1964, but many have since left the country.^[14] Zambia also has a small but economically important Asian population, most of whom are Indians and Chinese. HP Pavilion DV4-1040TX Battery An estimated 80,000 Chinese are resident in Zambia.^[18] In recent years, several hundred dispossessed white farmers have left Zimbabwe at the invitation of the Zambian government, to take up farming in the Southern province.^[19][20] According to the World Refugee Survey 2008 published by the U.S. HP Pavilion DV4-1041TX Battery Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Zambia has a population of refugeesand asylum seekers numbering approximately 113,200. The majority of refugees in the country came from the Democratic Republic of Congo(55,400 refugees from the DRC living in Zambia in 2007), Angola (40,800; see Angolans in Zambia) and Rwanda (4,000).^[21] HP Pavilion DV4-1042TX Battery Beginning in May 2008, the number of Zimbabweans in Zambia also began to increase significantly; the influx consisted largely of Zimbabweans formerly living in South Africa who were fleeing xenophobic violence there.^[22] Nearly 60,000 refugees live in camps in Zambia, while 50,000 are mixed in with the local populations. HP Pavilion DV4-1043TX Battery Refugees who wish to work in Zambia must apply for official permits which can cost up to $500 per year.^[21] Population of major cities The Europeans in the Colony numbered 14,000 at the 1931 census and the Africans 1,400,000, or just one hundred times as many. HP Pavilion DV4-1044TX Battery Of the Europeans, more than 10,000 had entered the country in the previous ten years, since the census in 1921^[24][25] (mostly to work on the copper mines). In 1938 there were only eight doctors in the entire country.

Languages

The official language of Zambia is English, which is used to conduct official business and is the medium of instruction in schools. HP Pavilion DV4-1045TX Battery The main local language, especially in Lusaka, is Nyanja. However, Bemba and Nyanja are spoken in the urban areas in addition to other indigenous languages which are commonly spoken in Zambia. Others are Kaounde, Tonga, Lunda and Luvale, which feature on the Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC)'s local languages section. HP Pavilion DV4-1046TX Battery The total number of languages spoken in Zambia is 73. The process of urbanisation has had a dramatic effect on some of the indigenous languages, including the assimilation of words from other indigenous languages and English. Urban dwellers sometimes differentiate between urban and rural dialects of the same language by prefixing the rural languages with 'deep'. HP Pavilion DV4-1047TX Battery Most will thus speak Bemba and Nyanja on the Copperbelt; Nyanja is dominantly spoken in Lusaka and Eastern Zambia. English is used in official communications and is the chosen language at home among - now common - intertribal families. HP Pavilion DV4-1048TX Battery If one does visit Zambia it becomes evident that language continuously evolves and has led toZambian slang which can be heard in daily life throughout Lusaka and other major cities. Intentions of introducing other languages into the school curriculum like Portuguese have been discussed by government.^[26] HP Pavilion DV4-1049TX Battery French is commonly studied in private schools, while some secondary schools have it as an optional subject. A German course has been introduced at the University of Zambia (UNZA).

Religion

Zambia is officially a Christian nation according to the 1996 constitution,^[27] HP Pavilion DV4-1050 Battery but a wide variety of religious traditions exist. Traditional religious thoughts blend easily with Christian beliefs in many of the country's syncretic churches. Christian denominations include: Roman Catholic, Anglican, Pentecostal, New Apostolic Church, Lutheran, Seventh-day Adventist, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses and a variety of Evangelical denominations. HP Pavilion DV4-1050EE Battery These grew, adjusted and prospered from the original missionary settlements (Portuguese and Catholicism in the east from Mozambique) and Anglicanism (English and Scottish influences) from the south. Except for some technical positions (e.g. physicians), Western missionary roles have been assumed by native believers. HP Pavilion DV4-1050EL Battery After Frederick Chiluba (a Pentecostal Christian) became President in 1991, Pentecostal congregations expanded considerably around the country.^[28] Approximately 87% of the population are Christians. Approximately 1% of the population are Muslims with most living in urban areas.^[29] HP Pavilion DV4-1050EP Battery There is also a small Jewish community, composed mostly of Ashkenazis. Notable Jewish Zambians include Simon Zukas, retired Minister, MP and a member of Forum for Democracy and Development and earlier on the Movement for Multiparty Democracy(MMD) and United National Independence Party. HP Pavilion DV4-1050ER Battery Additionally, the economist Stanley Fischer, currently the governor of the Bank of Israel and formerly Deputy Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was born and partially raised in Zambia's Jewish community. The Baha'i population of Zambia is over 160,000,^[30] or 1.5% of the population. HP Pavilion DV4-1050TX Battery The William Mmutle Masetlha Foundation^[31] run by the Baha'i community is particularly active in areas such as literacy and primary health care.

Economy

About 68% of Zambians live below the recognised national poverty line,^[32] with rural poverty rates standing at about 78%^[33]and urban rates of 53%.^[34] HP Pavilion DV4-1051 Battery Zambia ranked 117th out of 128 countries on the 2007 Global Competitiveness Index, which looks at factors that affect economic growth.^[35] Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy at birth (about 40.9 years) and maternal mortality (830 per 100,000 pregnancies).^[36] HP Pavilion DV4-1051TX Battery The country's rate of economic growth cannot support rapid population growth or the strain which HIV/AIDS-related issues place on the economy. During the decades of Kaunda's socialist policies, Zambia fell into poverty, especially after international copper prices declined in the 1970s. HP Pavilion DV4-1052 Battery The socialist regime made up for falling revenue with several abortive attempts at International Monetary Fund structural adjustment programmes (SAPs). After the dictatorship ended, successive governments have begun limited reforms. The economy stagnated until late 1990s. HP Pavilion DV4-1052TX Battery In 2007 Zambia recorded its ninth consecutive year of economic growth. Inflation was 8.9%, down from 30% in 2000.^[37] Zambia is still dealing with economic reform issues such as the size of the public sector and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems.^[37] HP Pavilion DV4-1053 Battery Economic regulations and red tape are extensive, and corruption is widespread. Zambia's total foreign debt exceeded $6 billion when the country qualified for Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC) debt relief in 2000, contingent upon meeting certain performance criteria. HP Pavilion DV4-1053TX Battery Initially, Zambia hoped to reach the HIPC completion point, and benefit from substantial debt forgiveness, in late 2003. HP Pavilion DV4-1054TX Battery In January 2003, the Zambian government informed the International Monetary Fund and World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatisation of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities. HP Pavilion DV4-1055TX Battery Although agreements were reached on these issues, subsequent overspending on civil service wages delayed Zambia's final HIPC debt forgiveness from late 2003 to early 2005, at the earliest. In an effort to reach HIPC completion in 2004, the government drafted an austerity budget for 2004, freezing civil service salaries and increasing a number of taxes. HP Pavilion DV4-1070 Battery The tax hike and public sector wage freeze prohibited salary increases and new hires. This sparked a nationwide strike in February 2004.^[38] The Zambian economy has historically been based on the copper mining industry. Output of copper had fallen, HP Pavilion DV4-1070EE Battery however, to a low of 228,000 metric tons in 1998, after a 30 year decline in output due to lack of investment, low copper prices, and uncertainty over privatisation. In 2002, following privatisation of the industry, copper production rebounded to 337,000 metric tons. HP Pavilion DV4-1070EF Battery Improvements in the world copper market have magnified the effect of this volume increase on revenues and foreign exchange earnings. The Zambian government is pursuing an economic diversification program to reduce the economy's reliance on the copper industry. HP Pavilion DV4-1070ER Battery This initiative seeks to exploit other components of Zambia's rich resource base by promoting agriculture, tourism, gemstone mining, and hydro-power. Agriculture plays a very important part in Zambia's economy providing many more jobs than the mining industry. HP Pavilion DV4-1070ES Battery Private local company Zambeef Products Ltd. is the leading agri-business in Zambia with over 4.000 employees, producing row crops (5.000 ha irrigated, 1.500 ha non-irrigated), cattle (Zambeef), pork (Master Pork), chicken (ZamChick), eggs (ZamChick Egg), dairy products, leather, fish, feedstock (Novatek) and edible oil (Zamanita). HP Pavilion DV4-1080EI Battery Zambeef operates eight abattoirs, four farms and numerous retail stores (also in cooperation with Shoprite) and a fast-food chain (ZamChick Inn) throughout the country. In 2003, exports of nonmetals increased by 25% and accounted for 38% of all export earnings, previously 35%.HP Pavilion DV4-1080EO Battery The Zambian government has recently been granting licenses to international resource companies to prospect for minerals such as nickel, tin, copper and uranium.^[39] It is hoped that nickel will take over from copper as the country's top metallic export. In 2009, Zambia has been badly hit by the world economic crisis.^[40] HP Pavilion DV4-1080ES Battery Zambia was ranked the 127th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings.^[41]

Social protection in Zambia

Zambia officially has extensive social protection targeted at low-capacity households, HP Pavilion DV4-1090EO Battery including social assistance (protection) and social insurance programmes (prevention), and programmes to improve economic productivity (promotion). However, these programmes face immense challenges and the actual coverage is very low and, in some cases, actually declining.^[42] HP Pavilion DV4-1090ES Battery Some analysts describe the programmes' coverage as patchy and transitory and not especially coherent or logical.^[42] Public works, such as PUSH, and cash transfers are the main instruments used to protect consumption among low-capacity households by providing (1) HP Pavilion DV4-1100 Battery seasonal safety nets to address cyclical poverty and vulnerability at times of need by offering employment and (2) community assets that are beneficial for productive activities.^[42] In practice, however, HP Pavilion DV4-1100EA Battery the programme prioritises food transfers to areas affected by natural disasters where vulnerability is acute and infrastructure development has remained a secondary objective.^[42] NGOs also have implemented short-term public works programmes implemented by NGOs, such as CARE’s agricultural inputs-for-assets (AICA) programme.^[42] HP Pavilion DV4-1101 Battery Social insurance initiatives, such as micro-insurance, health insurance and other contributory schemes exist, but these are very limited in their membership. Formal sector workers are protected by well-resourced pension, sickness and disability benefits, but most low-capacity households, especially in rural areas, work outside the formal sector.^[42] HP Pavilion DV4-1101TU Battery The emphasis on protection of the expense of prevention and promotion means that households move out of poverty only very slowly because they are unable to invest in activities that have greater returns. They remain highly at risk of sliding back into poverty and applying negative coping strategies.^[42] HP Pavilion DV4-1101TX Battery A balance between protection, prevention and promotion, however can only be achieved through more and consistent resources.^[42] Further improvements might also include

• improved implementation of existing programmes; and

better coordination between different implementers and programmes. HP Pavilion DV4-1102 Battery

Education

In 2003, the literacy rate was estimated to be 80.6% (86.8% male and 74.8% female).^[43] Education in Zambia is provided at two levels: basic education (years 1 to 9), and upper secondary (years 10 to 12). HP Pavilion DV4-1102TU Battery Some schools provide a "basic" education covering years 1 to 9, as year 9 is considered to be a decent level of education for the majority of children. However, tuition is only free up to year 7, and UNESCO estimated that 80% of children of primary school age in 2002 were enrolled.^[44]Most children drop out after year 7 when fees must be paid. HP Pavilion DV4-1102TX Battery Both government and private schools exist in Zambia. The private school system began largely as a result of Christian mission efforts during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Educational opportunities beyond secondary school are limited in Zambia. HP Pavilion DV4-1103TU Battery After secondary school, most students study at the various colleges, around the country. There are three main universities: the University of Zambia (UNZA), Mulungushi University (MU) and the Copperbelt University (CBU). Normally they all select students on the basis of ability; competition for places is intense. HP Pavilion DV4-1103TX Battery The introduction of fees in the late 1990s has made university level education inaccessible for some, although the government does provide state bursaries. Copperbelt University opened in the late 1980s, taking over most of the former Zambia Institute of Technology site in Kitwe. HP Pavilion DV4-1104TU Battery Other centres of education include the Public Administration College (NIPA), the Northern Technical College (NORTEC), the National Resources Development College (NRDC), the Evelyn Hone College, and Northrise University. HP Pavilion DV4-1104TX Battery There are also several teacher training colleges offering two-year training programmes, whilst missionary hospitals around the country offer internationally acceptable training for nurses. Several Christian schools offer seminary-level training. HP Pavilion DV4-1105EF Battery

Health

Zambia faces a generalized HIV epidemic, with an estimated prevalence rate of 13.5% among adults (ages 15-49) in 2009.^[45] However, HIV incidence in Zambia has declined by more than 25% from 2001 to 2010, an indication that the epidemic appears to be declining.^[46] HP Pavilion DV4-1105EM Battery In 2010, public expenditure on health was 3.4% of GDP, among the lowest in southern Africa.^[47] Infant mortality was at 102 per 1,000 in 2005. As of 2011, the life expectancy in Zambia was 43 years, up from 37 in previous years.^[48]

Maternal and child health care

In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. HP Pavilion DV4-1105TU Battery It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zambia is 470. This is compared with 602.9 in 2008 and 594.2 in 1990. HP Pavilion DV4-1105TX Battery The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 145 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 25. The aim of this report is to highlight ways in which the Millennium Development Goals can be achieved, particularly Goal 4 – Reduce child mortality and Goal 5 – improve maternal death. HP Pavilion DV4-1106EE Battery In Zambia the number of midwives per 1,000 live births is 5 and 1 in 38 shows us the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women. ^[49]

Culture

The culture of Zambia is mainly indigenous Bantu culture mixed with European influences. HP Pavilion DV4-1106EM Battery Prior to the establishment of modern Zambia, the natives lived in independent tribes, each with their own ways of life. One of the results of the colonial era was the growth of urbanization. Different ethnic groups started living together in towns and cities, influencing each other as well as adopting a lot of the European culture. HP Pavilion DV4-1106TX Battery The original cultures have largely survived in the rural areas. In the urban setting there is a continuous integration and evolution of these cultures to produce what is now called "Zambian culture". Traditional culture is very visible through colourful annual Zambian traditional ceremonies. HP Pavilion DV4-1107TX Battery Some of the more prominent are:Kuomboka and Kathanga (Western Province), Mutomboko (Luapula Province), Ncwala (Eastern Province), Lwiindi and Shimunenga(Southern Province), Lunda Lubanza (North Western), Likumbi Lyamize (North Western), Chibwela Kumushi (Central Province), Ukusefya Pa Ng’wena (Northern Province). HP Pavilion DV4-1108TX Battery Popular traditional arts are mainly in pottery, basketry (such as Tonga baskets), stools, fabrics, mats, wooden carvings, ivory carvings, wire craft and copper crafts.^{[citation needed]} Most Zambian traditional music is based on drums (and other percussion instruments) with a lot of singing and dancing. HP Pavilion DV4-1109TX Battery In the urban areas foreign genres of music are popular, in particular Congolese rumba, African-American music and Jamaican reggae. Several psychedelic rock artists emerged in the 1970s to create a genre known as "Zamrock", including The Witch, Musi-O-Tunya, Rikki Ililonga, Amanaz, the Peace, Chrissy Zebby Tembo, Blackfoot, and the Ngozi Family.^[ HP Pavilion DV4-1110EO Battery The Zambian staple diet is based on maize. It is normally eaten as a thick porridge, called nshima (Nyanja Word), prepared from maize flour commonly known as mealie meal. This may be eaten with a variety of vegetables, beans, meat, fish or sour milkdepending on geographical location/origin. HP Pavilion DV4-1110TX Battery Nshima is also prepared from cassava, a staple food in some parts of the country.

 

2010 famine

In June to August 2010, famine struck the Sahel.^[19] Niger's crops to failed to mature in the heat and famine developed. Sony VAIO VGN-FW94FS Battery

350,000 faced starvation and 1,200,000 were at risk of famine.^[20] In Chad, the temperature reached 47.6 C (118 F) on 22 June in Faya-Largeau, breaking a record set in 1961 at the same location. Niger tied its highest temperature record set in 1998, on also 22 June, at 47.1 C (117 F) in Bilma. Sony VAIO VGN-FW94GS Battery

That record was broken the next day, on 23 June when Bilma hit 48.2 C (119 F). The hottest temperature recorded in Sudan was reached on 25 June, at 49.6 C (121 F) in Dongola, breaking a record set in 1987.^[21] Sony VAIO VGN-FW94HS Battery

Niger reported diarrhoea, starvation, gastroenteritis, malnutrition and respiratory diseases killed and sickened many children 14 July. The new military junta is appealing for international food aid and has taken serious steps to calling overseas help since coming to office in February 2010.^[22] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11E Battery

On 26 July, the heat reached near record levels over Chad and Niger.^[23]

Demographics

Over half the population of Niger belong to the Hausa,^[24] who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Zarma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L Battery

Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country.

The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou who make up about 20% of Niger's population.^[25] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M Battery

With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.^[26]

A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.^[27][28][29] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S Battery

Health

Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z Battery

According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate.^[30] Nonetheless, Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world (7.2 births per woman); this means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2004. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E Battery

Education

Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.^[31] The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.^[31] In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.^[31] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E/B Battery

About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.^[31] Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods.^[31] In addition, nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.^[31] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130EB Battery

Culture and religion

Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E Battery

the Zarmadominated Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E/B Battery

populated byKanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem-Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the A r Mountains and Saharan desert in the vast north.

Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140EB Battery

brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N Battery

and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.

Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N/B Battery

At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N'Konni and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,^[32] including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrassas. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140QE Battery

Religion

Islam, spread from North Africa beginning in the 10th century, has greatly shaped the mores of the people of Niger. Between 80 to more than 98% of the population is Muslim, with small Animist and Christian communities, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ145E Battery

the latter a consequence of missionaries established during the French colonial years, as well as urban expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa.

Islam

Approximately 95% of Muslims in Niger are Sunni and Sufi;^[33] 5% are Shi'a. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15 Battery

^[34] Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan tradetraveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem-Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E Battery

Both Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th and 19th century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufibrotherhoods, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E/BC Battery

although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and theSanusiya in the far northeast.^[33]

A small center of Wahhabite followers have appeared in the last thirty years in the capital and in Maradi.^[35] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150EBC Battery

These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots^[36][37][38]

Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law.^[39] Interfaith relations are deemed very good, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G Battery

and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country is marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.^[40]Divorce and polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and headcoverings are not mandatory they are often a rarity in urban areas.^[41] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L Battery

Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bi re Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.

Animism

A small percentage of the population practices traditional indigenous religious beliefs.^[34] The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M Battery

As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south centre of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori religion) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S Battery

as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion.

These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri (or Azna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T Battery

There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.^[33]

Media

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.^[42] NSony VAIO VGN-FZ160E Battery

ow Niamey boasts scores of newspapers and magazines, some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.^[43][44] Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.^[45] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E/B Battery

In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns.^[46] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160EB Battery

There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comit de Pilotage de Radios de Proximit (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17 Battery

Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G Battery

Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.^[46]

Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.^[47] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L Battery

The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Sup rieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 Battery

International human rights groups have criticised government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.

Continuity

Since the creation of the Fifth Republic in 1999, the political rivalries and parties of the Third Republic have maintained their central role in national politics. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E Battery

There continue to be three large parties, and several smaller ones, with no single party gaining a majority in the National Assembly of Niger. In the Third Republic a coalition of the CDS and PNDS was formed with many small parties, in part to keep the former military party of the MNSD out of power.^[1] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E/B Battery

This coalition collapsed in recriminations in 1995, leading to a PNDS and MNSD government facing a CDS President. The bad blood and gridlock which resulted was one of the reasons given for General Ma nassara's 1996 Nigerien coup d'etat.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180EB Battery

The same three men who dominated the parties in the Third Republic returned in 1999: Mamadou Tanja for the MNSD-Nassara, Mahamadou Issoufou of the PNDS, and Mahamane Ousmane of CDS-Rahama.

1999 elections

Following another coup in April 1999, in which Ma nassara was killed, the MNSD-Nassara's Tandja won the October 1999 presidential election.^[3] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U Battery

In the October 1999 National Assembly Election, the MNSD won 38 of the 83 seats, forming a government under Hama Amadou with the support of CDS-Rahama's 17 seats. The PNDS led the opposition with 16 seats, but the continued antagonism between Mahamadou Issoufou and Mahamane Ousmane meant that no other coalition was available. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U/B Battery

ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, a former split for the MNSD held only four seats.^[3] In 2002, this coalition was shored up when the ANDP joined the parliamentary majority coalition, the Alliance of Democratic Forces, leaving the opposition Coordination of Democratic Forces.^[4] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180UB Battery

Djermakoye joined the government as a Minister of State in November 2002, serving in that position until December 2004.^[5]

2004 elections

While Tandja easily retained the presidency against a second round challenge by Mahamadou Issoufou, the 2004 National Assembly elections were closer. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18E Battery

The PNDS formed a coalition to contest the expanded 113 seats of the National Assembly, which also included the UNI (2 seats), the PPN (2), and the PNA-Al'ouma (4). With the PNDS' 17 seats this coalition took 25 seats. The MNSD remained the largest party at 47 seats, be relied again on CDS-Rahama's 22 seats to govern. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18G Battery

A minor portfolios in the Council of Ministers were given to two smaller parties as well, the RDP-Jama'a (6 seats) and ANDP-Zaman Lahiya (5 seats). RSD-Gaskiya (7 seats) and PSDN-Alheri (1 seat) remained aloof of both blocs.^[6]

2007 PM crisis

In December 2004 Hama Amadou was again chosen as Prime Minister. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M Battery

Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on 30 December 2004. In June 2007, a no confidence vote against the government led to the fall of the Prime Minister Hama Amadou and his ministers. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18ME Battery

Amadou was replaced by Seyni Oumarou, also of the president's MNSD-Nassara party, leading to infighting within a portion of the party still loyal to Amadou.^[7] Broad changes were made to the Council of Ministers of Niger, with MNSD-Nassara continuing to take the majority of portfolios, but with the CDS, RDP-Jama'a, and NDP-Zaman Lahiya retaining Ministerial appointments. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18S Battery

Tazartch

In the run up to the 2009 elections (Presidential, Assembly, and Municipal), a movement to draft President Tandja for a third term appeared. Led by public figures of the MNSD outside government, the group took the name of Tandja's 2004 re-election slogan, Tazartch : a Hausa word meaning "Continuity". Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18T Battery

Through several well funded and well attended public rallies in late 2008, the President remained silent on the calls for him to remain.^[8] The 1999 constitution made the serving of more than two term impossible (article 36), and the revision of that article illegal by any means (article 136). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 Battery

The Prime Minister Seyni Oumarou reiterated on 22 January that all scheduled elections would go ahead before the end of 2009.^[9] In March, during his meetings with French President Sarkozy, Tandja explicitly stated that he would not seek a third term.^[10] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E Battery

Then, in early May 2009, when questioned by the press on his visit to Agadez to begin peace talks with Tuareg rebels, Tandja announced that "the people have demanded I remain."^[11] His spokesman then outlined a plan in which a referendum could be held in mid 2009, not to amend the 1999 constitution, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/1 Battery

but to scrap it and begin work on a constitution of the Sixth Republic of Niger, which would contain no term limits for the President, and create a fully Presidential republic.^{[12] [13] [14] [15]}

On 15 May 2009, in response to their parties opposition to a proposed referendum to allow the President to seek a third term, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/2 Battery

the three members of RDP-Jama'a andANDP-Zaman Lahiya were replaced with ministers drawn from the MNSD-Nassara. With the continued support of the CDS, the MNSD maintained a working majority of 67 seats in the 113 seat National Assembly.^[16] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/B Battery

According to the 1999 Constitution of Niger, the President may call a referendum on any matter (except for a revision of those elements of the Constitution outlined in Article 136 including the presidential term limits). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190EB Battery

The Constitutional Court of Niger and the National Assembly of Niger must advise the president, but there is no provision that the president must heed their advice. On 25 May 2009, the Constitutional Court, made up of appointed judges, released a ruling that any referendum to create a new constitution would be unconstitutional, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N Battery

and further would be a violation of the oath the president had taken on the Koran (a serious matter in this overwhelmingly Muslim country).^[17][18] The week prior, two major parties had come out in their opposition to the referendum proposal as well. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N2 Battery

On 13 May, the ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, led by former MNSD number two Djermokoye declared its opposition to any change in the constitution. On 15 May the CDS-Rahama, the party without which the MNSD could not have formed governments in 1999, 2004, and 2007, came out opposing the referendum, and calling the constitution unalterable.^[19][20] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N3 Battery

Neither party moved into the opposition, and both Ousmane and Djermokoye said they were willing to negotiate with the president.^[21]

On 26 March, within hours of the Constitutional courts statement, official media read out a statement that President Tandja had dissolved the National Assembly.^[22] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N4 Battery

Under the 1999 Constitution he is allowed to do once every two years,^[23] but he must call parliamentary elections with three months. This would mean the government of Niger would carry out scheduled parliamentary elections in September, two months early, and a referendum on a new constitution before Presidential elections which can take place no later than December, assuming the 1999 constitution is in effect. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N5 Battery

The economy of Niger is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs to neighbors and raw minerals to world markets. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190U Battery

Niger, is a landlocked Sub-Sahara African nation, and over the past two decades has consistently been ranked near or at the bottom of worldwide indexes of theHuman development index, GDP, and percapita income. Economic activity centres on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, re-export trade, and export of uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19L Battery

The 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. Exports of cattle to neighboring Nigeria, as well as Groundnuts and their oil remain the primary non-mineral exports. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19VN Battery

The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid - which was suspended briefly following coup d' tats in 1996 and 1999 - for operating expenses and public investment. Short-term prospects depend continued World Bank and IMF debt relief and extended aid. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ20 Battery

The post 1999 government has broadly adhered to privatisation and market deregulation plans instituted by these funders.

Overall

Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE Battery

Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E Battery

Between 1988 and 1995 28% to 30% of the total economy of Niger was in the unregulated Informal sector, including small and even large scale rural and urban production, transport and services.^[4]

GDP per capita

Current GDP per capita^[5] of Niger grew 10% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 187% in the Seventies. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J Battery

But this proved unsustainable and it consequently shrank by 27% in the Eighties and a further 48% in the Nineties. Much of this GDP is explained through the exploitation of uranium at Arlit in the far north of the country. Ore is partially processed on site by foreign mining corporations and transported by truck to Benin. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M Battery

Fluctuation of GDP can be mapped to changes in international uranium price, as well as price negations with the main mining company, France's Areva NC. Price rises in the mid 1970s were followed by a collapse in the market price through much of the 1980s and 1990s. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S Battery

Thus the GDP per capita has little direct impact on the average Nigerien, although uranium funds much government operation. The 2006 Human Development Index ranked Niger sixth from worst in the world, with a HDI of 0.370: 174 of 179nations.^[6] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z Battery

Agriculture

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220E Battery

The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220E/B Battery

Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption, while expensive, has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220EB Battery

Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Groundnuts, and to a lesser degree Cotton, introduced by former colonial power France in in the 1930s and 1950s respectively, account for most of the world market for Nigerien industrial agriculture. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220U Battery

Prior to the mass exploitation of uranium in the early 1970s, groundnut oil was the largest Nigerien export by worth.^[8]

The majority of Niger's population are rural residents engaged in agriculture, mostly in the south centre and south west of the nation. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220U/B Battery

While these people are dependent on the agricultural market portions of their production and consumption, much of Nigerien farming is subsistence agricultureoutside of the marketplace.^[8]

External trade and investment

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although impossible to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220UB Battery

Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported and some are transformed into handicrafts.

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230E Battery

The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated and new investment since then has been limited. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230E/B Battery

Niger's two uranium mines (SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine) are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230EB Battery

Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found. Numerous foreign companies, including American firms, have taken out exploration licenses for concessions in the gold seam in western Niger, which also contains deposits of other minerals. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240E Battery

Several oil companies explored for petroleum since 1992 in the Djado plateau in north-eastern Niger and the Agadem basin, north of Lake Chad but made no discoveries worth developing at the time. In June 2007, however, China National Petroleum Corporation Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240E/B Battery

(state-owned by the People's Republic of China) signed a US$5 billion agreement to extract oil in the Agadem block, as well as build a 20,000 barrels (3,200 m³) per day oil refinery and a 2,000 km oil pipeline in the country; production is expected to start in 2009.^[9] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240EB Battery

Niger's known coal reserves, with low energy and high ash content, cannot compete against higher quality coal on the world market. However, the parastatal SONICHAR (Soci t nig rienne de charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240N Battery

Economic growth

After the economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 CFA franc devaluation contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240N/B Battery

the economy stagnated due the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999, which gradually resumed in 2000, and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying a projected growth of 4.5% for 2001. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240NB Battery

Foreign investment

In recent years, the Government of Niger promulgated revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ25 Battery

The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ250E Battery

Currency

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with six other members of the West African Monetary Union. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ250E/B Battery

The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 100 CFA (Communaut financi re africaine) to the French franc (to the euro as of January 1, 2002). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E Battery

Government restructuring

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ27 Battery

In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ28 Battery

In addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatizationmodel. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E Battery

Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works. In its effort comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government also is taking actions to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised aPoverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E/B Battery

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF and other United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280EB Battery

Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ283BN Battery

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. In 2005 the UN drew attention to the increased need for foreign aid given severe problems withdrought and locusts resulting in a famine endangering the lives around a million people. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U Battery

Agriculture is the primary economic activity of a majority of Niger's 13 million citizens.

The agricultural economy is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs and cattle to neighbors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U/B Battery

Niger, a landlocked Sub-Sahara African nation, and over the past two decades has consistently been ranked near or at the bottom of worldwide indexes of the Human development index, GDP, and percapita income. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285UB Battery

Economic activity centres on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, re-export trade, and export of uranium. The 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290 Battery

Exports of cattle to neighboring Nigeria, as well asGroundnuts and their oil remain the primary non-mineral exports

Overall economy

Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290E Battery

Drought cycles,desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy.^[2]Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EAB Battery

Between 1988 and 1995 28% to 30% of the total economy of Niger was in the unregulated Informal sector, including small and even large scale rural and urban production, transport and services.^[3] Current GDP per capita is very low by world standards, in part explained through the involvement of a majority of the population in very small scale agriculture, which generates little monetary exchange.^[4] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E Battery

Geography

A majority of Niger's population rural residents engaged in crop tending are clustered in the south centre and south west of the nation, in those areas (the Sahel) which can expect to receive between 300mm to 600mm of rainfall annually. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E/B Battery

A small area in the southern tip of the nation, surrounding Gaya can expect to receive 700mm to 900mm or rainfall. Northern areas which support crops, such as the southern portions of the A r Massif and the Kaouar oasis rely upon oases and a slight increase in rainfall due to mountain effects. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280EB Battery

Large portions of the northwest and far east of the nation, while within the Sahara desert, see just enough seasonal rainfall to support semi-nomadic animal husbandry. The populations of these areas, mostly Tuareg, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ283BN Battery

Wodaabe - Fula, and Toubou, practise Transhumance: traveling south to pasture and sell animals in the dry season, north into the Sahara in the brief rainy season, while maintaining settled communities along these routes. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U Battery

Agriculture production

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population.^[2] Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U/B Battery

Thus 53% of the population is actively involved in crop production.^[2] The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria.

Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285UB Battery

Irrigated rice for internal consumption, while expensive, has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290 Battery

Drought and environmental degradation

Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements^[2]. Rains, as in much of the Sahel, have been marked by annual variability. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290E Battery

This has been especially true in the 20th century, with the most severe drought on record beginning in the late 1960s and lasting, with one break, well into the 1980s. The long term effect of this, especially to pastoralist populations remains in the 21st century, with those communities which rely upon cattle, sheep, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EAB Battery

and camels husbandry losing entire herds more than once during this period. Recent rains remain variable. For instance, the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed.

Food shortfalls have also been caused by other factors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EBB Battery

Market prices driven up by drought and a plague of desert locust in 2005-2006 causeda major food crisis in parts of the nation.

Shortage of good farmland has led to a number of innovations to farm marginal, often laterite soils and soil degraded by overfarming, wind,desertification, and drought. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EBW Battery

Women in particular are often given poor plots of land (in inherited sections known as "Gamana") to garden, and have developed specific crops for poor soil and water conditions. These include the fruit of the Ziziphus mauritania tree ("Indian Jujube", known locally as "Pomme du Sahel" or Sahel Apple) and the leaves and nuts of the Moringa stenopetala. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290ECB Battery

Farmers use specialty water conservation techniques, "water microcatchments" or planting pits known as zai holes, planting of crops among certain trees, planting in raised beds, drip irrigation, and usage of water collected in the natural stone bottomed low areas common in the south east of the nation.^[6] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGB Battery

Market effects

While Nigerien farmers are often dependent on the agricultural market for portions of their production and consumption, much of Nigerien farming is subsistence agriculture outside the marketplace.^[5] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGC Battery

The 2006 Human Development Index ranked Niger sixth from worst in the world, with a HDI of 0.370: 174 of 179 nations.^[7] Groundnuts, and to a lesser degree Cotton, introduced by former colonial power France in the 1930s and 1950s respectively, account for most of the world market for Nigerien industrial agriculture. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGE Battery

Prior to the mass exploitation of uranium in the early 1970s, groundnut oil was the largest Nigerien export by worth.^[5]

External trade and investment in agriculture

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGS Battery

Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported and some are transformed into handicrafts.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290N Battery

Hausa areas in the south center of the nation are especially known for their leather industries. Zinder and Maradi are two foci of leatherwork and trade. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290U Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ29VN Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M Battery

Animism

A small percentage of the population practices traditional indigenous religious beliefs.^[34] The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15M Battery

As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south centre of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori religion) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15S Battery

as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion.

These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri (or Azna, the Hausa word for "pagan") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15T Battery

There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest.^[33]

Media

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.^[42] NSony VAIO VGN-FZ160E Battery

ow Niamey boasts scores of newspapers and magazines, some, like Le Sahel, are government operated, while many are critical of the government.^[43][44] Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.^[45] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160E/B Battery

In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them the Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere are urban-based commercial-format FM networks in the major towns.^[46] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ160EB Battery

There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comit de Pilotage de Radios de Proximit (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17 Battery

Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17G Battery

Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name.^[46]

Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.^[47] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ17L Battery

The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the Conseil Sup rieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18 Battery

International human rights groups have criticised government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.

Continuity

Since the creation of the Fifth Republic in 1999, the political rivalries and parties of the Third Republic have maintained their central role in national politics. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E Battery

There continue to be three large parties, and several smaller ones, with no single party gaining a majority in the National Assembly of Niger. In the Third Republic a coalition of the CDS and PNDS was formed with many small parties, in part to keep the former military party of the MNSD out of power.^[1] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180E/B Battery

This coalition collapsed in recriminations in 1995, leading to a PNDS and MNSD government facing a CDS President. The bad blood and gridlock which resulted was one of the reasons given for General Ma nassara's 1996 Nigerien coup d'etat.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180EB Battery

The same three men who dominated the parties in the Third Republic returned in 1999: Mamadou Tanja for the MNSD-Nassara, Mahamadou Issoufou of the PNDS, and Mahamane Ousmane of CDS-Rahama.

1999 elections

Following another coup in April 1999, in which Ma nassara was killed, the MNSD-Nassara's Tandja won the October 1999 presidential election.^[3] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U Battery

In the October 1999 National Assembly Election, the MNSD won 38 of the 83 seats, forming a government under Hama Amadou with the support of CDS-Rahama's 17 seats. The PNDS led the opposition with 16 seats, but the continued antagonism between Mahamadou Issoufou and Mahamane Ousmane meant that no other coalition was available. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180U/B Battery

ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, a former split for the MNSD held only four seats.^[3] In 2002, this coalition was shored up when the ANDP joined the parliamentary majority coalition, the Alliance of Democratic Forces, leaving the opposition Coordination of Democratic Forces.^[4] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ180UB Battery

Djermakoye joined the government as a Minister of State in November 2002, serving in that position until December 2004.^[5]

2004 elections

While Tandja easily retained the presidency against a second round challenge by Mahamadou Issoufou, the 2004 National Assembly elections were closer. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18E Battery

The PNDS formed a coalition to contest the expanded 113 seats of the National Assembly, which also included the UNI (2 seats), the PPN (2), and the PNA-Al'ouma (4). With the PNDS' 17 seats this coalition took 25 seats. The MNSD remained the largest party at 47 seats, be relied again on CDS-Rahama's 22 seats to govern. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18G Battery

A minor portfolios in the Council of Ministers were given to two smaller parties as well, the RDP-Jama'a (6 seats) and ANDP-Zaman Lahiya (5 seats). RSD-Gaskiya (7 seats) and PSDN-Alheri (1 seat) remained aloof of both blocs.^[6]

2007 PM crisis

In December 2004 Hama Amadou was again chosen as Prime Minister. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18M Battery

Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on 30 December 2004. In June 2007, a no confidence vote against the government led to the fall of the Prime Minister Hama Amadou and his ministers. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18ME Battery

Amadou was replaced by Seyni Oumarou, also of the president's MNSD-Nassara party, leading to infighting within a portion of the party still loyal to Amadou.^[7] Broad changes were made to the Council of Ministers of Niger, with MNSD-Nassara continuing to take the majority of portfolios, but with the CDS, RDP-Jama'a, and NDP-Zaman Lahiya retaining Ministerial appointments. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18S Battery

Tazartch

In the run up to the 2009 elections (Presidential, Assembly, and Municipal), a movement to draft President Tandja for a third term appeared. Led by public figures of the MNSD outside government, the group took the name of Tandja's 2004 re-election slogan, Tazartch : a Hausa word meaning "Continuity". Sony VAIO VGN-FZ18T Battery

Through several well funded and well attended public rallies in late 2008, the President remained silent on the calls for him to remain.^[8] The 1999 constitution made the serving of more than two term impossible (article 36), and the revision of that article illegal by any means (article 136). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190 Battery

The Prime Minister Seyni Oumarou reiterated on 22 January that all scheduled elections would go ahead before the end of 2009.^[9] In March, during his meetings with French President Sarkozy, Tandja explicitly stated that he would not seek a third term.^[10] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E Battery

Then, in early May 2009, when questioned by the press on his visit to Agadez to begin peace talks with Tuareg rebels, Tandja announced that "the people have demanded I remain."^[11] His spokesman then outlined a plan in which a referendum could be held in mid 2009, not to amend the 1999 constitution, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/1 Battery

but to scrap it and begin work on a constitution of the Sixth Republic of Niger, which would contain no term limits for the President, and create a fully Presidential republic.^{[12] [13] [14] [15]}

On 15 May 2009, in response to their parties opposition to a proposed referendum to allow the President to seek a third term, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/2 Battery

the three members of RDP-Jama'a andANDP-Zaman Lahiya were replaced with ministers drawn from the MNSD-Nassara. With the continued support of the CDS, the MNSD maintained a working majority of 67 seats in the 113 seat National Assembly.^[16] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190E/B Battery

According to the 1999 Constitution of Niger, the President may call a referendum on any matter (except for a revision of those elements of the Constitution outlined in Article 136 including the presidential term limits). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190EB Battery

The Constitutional Court of Niger and the National Assembly of Niger must advise the president, but there is no provision that the president must heed their advice. On 25 May 2009, the Constitutional Court, made up of appointed judges, released a ruling that any referendum to create a new constitution would be unconstitutional, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N Battery

and further would be a violation of the oath the president had taken on the Koran (a serious matter in this overwhelmingly Muslim country).^[17][18] The week prior, two major parties had come out in their opposition to the referendum proposal as well. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N2 Battery

On 13 May, the ANDP-Zaman Lahiya, led by former MNSD number two Djermokoye declared its opposition to any change in the constitution. On 15 May the CDS-Rahama, the party without which the MNSD could not have formed governments in 1999, 2004, and 2007, came out opposing the referendum, and calling the constitution unalterable.^[19][20] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N3 Battery

Neither party moved into the opposition, and both Ousmane and Djermokoye said they were willing to negotiate with the president.^[21]

On 26 March, within hours of the Constitutional courts statement, official media read out a statement that President Tandja had dissolved the National Assembly.^[22] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N4 Battery

Under the 1999 Constitution he is allowed to do once every two years,^[23] but he must call parliamentary elections with three months. This would mean the government of Niger would carry out scheduled parliamentary elections in September, two months early, and a referendum on a new constitution before Presidential elections which can take place no later than December, assuming the 1999 constitution is in effect. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190N5 Battery

The economy of Niger is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs to neighbors and raw minerals to world markets. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ190U Battery

Niger, is a landlocked Sub-Sahara African nation, and over the past two decades has consistently been ranked near or at the bottom of worldwide indexes of theHuman development index, GDP, and percapita income. Economic activity centres on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, re-export trade, and export of uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19L Battery

The 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. Exports of cattle to neighboring Nigeria, as well as Groundnuts and their oil remain the primary non-mineral exports. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ19VN Battery

The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid - which was suspended briefly following coup d' tats in 1996 and 1999 - for operating expenses and public investment. Short-term prospects depend continued World Bank and IMF debt relief and extended aid. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ20 Battery

The post 1999 government has broadly adhered to privatisation and market deregulation plans instituted by these funders.

Overall

Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ210CE Battery

Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21E Battery

Between 1988 and 1995 28% to 30% of the total economy of Niger was in the unregulated Informal sector, including small and even large scale rural and urban production, transport and services.^[4]

GDP per capita

Current GDP per capita^[5] of Niger grew 10% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 187% in the Seventies. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21J Battery

But this proved unsustainable and it consequently shrank by 27% in the Eighties and a further 48% in the Nineties. Much of this GDP is explained through the exploitation of uranium at Arlit in the far north of the country. Ore is partially processed on site by foreign mining corporations and transported by truck to Benin. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21M Battery

Fluctuation of GDP can be mapped to changes in international uranium price, as well as price negations with the main mining company, France's Areva NC. Price rises in the mid 1970s were followed by a collapse in the market price through much of the 1980s and 1990s. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21S Battery

Thus the GDP per capita has little direct impact on the average Nigerien, although uranium funds much government operation. The 2006 Human Development Index ranked Niger sixth from worst in the world, with a HDI of 0.370: 174 of 179nations.^[6] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ21Z Battery

Agriculture

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220E Battery

The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220E/B Battery

Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption, while expensive, has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220EB Battery

Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Groundnuts, and to a lesser degree Cotton, introduced by former colonial power France in in the 1930s and 1950s respectively, account for most of the world market for Nigerien industrial agriculture. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220U Battery

Prior to the mass exploitation of uranium in the early 1970s, groundnut oil was the largest Nigerien export by worth.^[8]

The majority of Niger's population are rural residents engaged in agriculture, mostly in the south centre and south west of the nation. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220U/B Battery

While these people are dependent on the agricultural market portions of their production and consumption, much of Nigerien farming is subsistence agricultureoutside of the marketplace.^[8]

External trade and investment

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although impossible to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ220UB Battery

Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported and some are transformed into handicrafts.

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230E Battery

The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated and new investment since then has been limited. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230E/B Battery

Niger's two uranium mines (SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine) are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ230EB Battery

Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found. Numerous foreign companies, including American firms, have taken out exploration licenses for concessions in the gold seam in western Niger, which also contains deposits of other minerals. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240E Battery

Several oil companies explored for petroleum since 1992 in the Djado plateau in north-eastern Niger and the Agadem basin, north of Lake Chad but made no discoveries worth developing at the time. In June 2007, however, China National Petroleum Corporation Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240E/B Battery

(state-owned by the People's Republic of China) signed a US$5 billion agreement to extract oil in the Agadem block, as well as build a 20,000 barrels (3,200 m³) per day oil refinery and a 2,000 km oil pipeline in the country; production is expected to start in 2009.^[9] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240EB Battery

Niger's known coal reserves, with low energy and high ash content, cannot compete against higher quality coal on the world market. However, the parastatal SONICHAR (Soci t nig rienne de charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240N Battery

Economic growth

After the economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 CFA franc devaluation contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240N/B Battery

the economy stagnated due the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999, which gradually resumed in 2000, and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying a projected growth of 4.5% for 2001. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ240NB Battery

Foreign investment

In recent years, the Government of Niger promulgated revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ25 Battery

The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ250E Battery

Currency

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with six other members of the West African Monetary Union. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ250E/B Battery

The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 100 CFA (Communaut financi re africaine) to the French franc (to the euro as of January 1, 2002). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ260E Battery

Government restructuring

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ27 Battery

In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ28 Battery

In addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatizationmodel. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E Battery

Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works. In its effort comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government also is taking actions to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised aPoverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E/B Battery

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF and other United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA). Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280EB Battery

Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ283BN Battery

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources. In 2005 the UN drew attention to the increased need for foreign aid given severe problems withdrought and locusts resulting in a famine endangering the lives around a million people. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U Battery

Agriculture is the primary economic activity of a majority of Niger's 13 million citizens.

The agricultural economy is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs and cattle to neighbors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U/B Battery

Niger, a landlocked Sub-Sahara African nation, and over the past two decades has consistently been ranked near or at the bottom of worldwide indexes of the Human development index, GDP, and percapita income. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285UB Battery

Economic activity centres on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, re-export trade, and export of uranium. The 50% devaluation of the West African CFA franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290 Battery

Exports of cattle to neighboring Nigeria, as well asGroundnuts and their oil remain the primary non-mineral exports

Overall economy

Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290E Battery

Drought cycles,desertification, a 3.4% population growth rate and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy.^[2]Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EAB Battery

Between 1988 and 1995 28% to 30% of the total economy of Niger was in the unregulated Informal sector, including small and even large scale rural and urban production, transport and services.^[3] Current GDP per capita is very low by world standards, in part explained through the involvement of a majority of the population in very small scale agriculture, which generates little monetary exchange.^[4] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E Battery

Geography

A majority of Niger's population rural residents engaged in crop tending are clustered in the south centre and south west of the nation, in those areas (the Sahel) which can expect to receive between 300mm to 600mm of rainfall annually. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280E/B Battery

A small area in the southern tip of the nation, surrounding Gaya can expect to receive 700mm to 900mm or rainfall. Northern areas which support crops, such as the southern portions of the A r Massif and the Kaouar oasis rely upon oases and a slight increase in rainfall due to mountain effects. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ280EB Battery

Large portions of the northwest and far east of the nation, while within the Sahara desert, see just enough seasonal rainfall to support semi-nomadic animal husbandry. The populations of these areas, mostly Tuareg, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ283BN Battery

Wodaabe - Fula, and Toubou, practise Transhumance: traveling south to pasture and sell animals in the dry season, north into the Sahara in the brief rainy season, while maintaining settled communities along these routes. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U Battery

Agriculture production

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population.^[2] Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285U/B Battery

Thus 53% of the population is actively involved in crop production.^[2] The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria.

Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ285UB Battery

Irrigated rice for internal consumption, while expensive, has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290 Battery

Drought and environmental degradation

Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements^[2]. Rains, as in much of the Sahel, have been marked by annual variability. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290E Battery

This has been especially true in the 20th century, with the most severe drought on record beginning in the late 1960s and lasting, with one break, well into the 1980s. The long term effect of this, especially to pastoralist populations remains in the 21st century, with those communities which rely upon cattle, sheep, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EAB Battery

and camels husbandry losing entire herds more than once during this period. Recent rains remain variable. For instance, the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed.

Food shortfalls have also been caused by other factors. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EBB Battery

Market prices driven up by drought and a plague of desert locust in 2005-2006 causeda major food crisis in parts of the nation.

Shortage of good farmland has led to a number of innovations to farm marginal, often laterite soils and soil degraded by overfarming, wind,desertification, and drought. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EBW Battery

Women in particular are often given poor plots of land (in inherited sections known as "Gamana") to garden, and have developed specific crops for poor soil and water conditions. These include the fruit of the Ziziphus mauritania tree ("Indian Jujube", known locally as "Pomme du Sahel" or Sahel Apple) and the leaves and nuts of the Moringa stenopetala. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290ECB Battery

Farmers use specialty water conservation techniques, "water microcatchments" or planting pits known as zai holes, planting of crops among certain trees, planting in raised beds, drip irrigation, and usage of water collected in the natural stone bottomed low areas common in the south east of the nation.^[6] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGB Battery

Market effects

While Nigerien farmers are often dependent on the agricultural market for portions of their production and consumption, much of Nigerien farming is subsistence agriculture outside the marketplace.^[5] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGC Battery

The 2006 Human Development Index ranked Niger sixth from worst in the world, with a HDI of 0.370: 174 of 179 nations.^[7] Groundnuts, and to a lesser degree Cotton, introduced by former colonial power France in the 1930s and 1950s respectively, account for most of the world market for Nigerien industrial agriculture. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGE Battery

Prior to the mass exploitation of uranium in the early 1970s, groundnut oil was the largest Nigerien export by worth.^[5]

External trade and investment in agriculture

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290EGS Battery

Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported and some are transformed into handicrafts.^[2] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290N Battery

Hausa areas in the south center of the nation are especially known for their leather industries. Zinder and Maradi are two foci of leatherwork and trade. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ290U Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ29VN Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31B Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31E Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31J Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FZ31M Battery

Niger , officially the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTB Battery

Niger covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km², making it the largest nation in West Africa, with over 80 percent of its land area covered by the Sahara desert. The country's predominantly Islamic population of just above 15,000,000 is mostly clustered in the far south and west of the nation. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTP Battery

The capital city is Niamey, located in the far southwest corner of Niger.

Niger is a developing country, and consistently features at the lowest ranks of the United Nations' Human Development Index (HDI), 186th of 187 countries in 2011. Much of the non-desert portions of the country are threatened by periodic drought and desertification. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTQ Battery

The economy is concentrated around subsistence and some export agriculture clustered in the more fertile south, and the export of raw materials, especially uranium ore. Niger remains handicapped by its landlocked position, desert terrain, poor education and poverty of its people, lack of infrastructure, poor health care, and environmental degradation. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTR Battery

Nigerien society reflects a diversity drawn from the long independent histories of its several ethnic groups and regions and their relatively short period living in a single state. Historically, what is now Niger has been on the fringes of several large states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under five constitutions and three periods of military rule. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTW Battery

Following a military coup in 2010, Niger has now become a democratic, multi-party state. A majority live in rural areas, and have little access to advanced education.

Geography

Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between theSahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAB Battery

It lies between latitudes 11 and 24 N, and longitudes 0 and 16 E. Niger's area is 1,267,000 square kilometres (489,191 sq mi) of which 300 square kilometres (116 sq mi) is water. This makes it slightly less than twice the size of the US state of Texas, and the world's twenty-second largest country (after Chad). Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAC Battery

Niger borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of 5,697 kilometres (3,540 mi). The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (1,497 km/930 mi). This is followed by Chad to the east, at 1,175 km (730 mi), Algeria to the north-northwest (956 km/594 mi), and Mali at 821 km (510 mi). Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAD Battery

Niger also has small borders in its far southwest with Burkina Faso at 628 km (390 mi) and Benin at 266 km (165 mi) and to the north-northeast Libya at 354 km (220 mi).

The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of 200 metres (656 ft). The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Tagh s in the A r Massif at 2,022 m (6,634 ft). Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NBB Battery

Climate

Niger's subtropical climate is mainly very hot and dry, with much desert area. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCA Battery

While most of what is now Niger has been subsumed into the inhospitable Sahara desert in the last two thousand years, five thousand years ago the north of the country was fertile grasslands. Populations of pastoralists have left paintings of abundant wildlife, domesticated animals, chariots, and a complex culture that dates back to at least 10,000 BCE. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCB Battery

Several former northern villages and archaeological sites date from the Green Sahara period of 7,500-7,000 to 3,500-3,000 BCE.^[7]</ref>

Early historical period

Overlooking the town of Zinderand the Sultan's Palace from the French fort (1906).

The arrival of the French spelled a sudden end for precolonial states like theSultanate of Damagaram, which carried on only as ceremonial "chiefs" appointed by the colonial government.

The Songhai Empire expanded into what is modern Niger from the 15th century, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCC Battery

reaching as far as Agadez before its collapse in 1591, from which the modern Zarma and Songhai peoples trace their history. At its fall, portions of the empire and refugees from modern Mali formed a series of Songhai states, with the Dendi Kingdom becoming the most powerful. Sony VAIO VGN-CS50B/W Battery

From the 13th century, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, into the A r Mountains, displacing some previous residents to the south. At their peak, the Tuareg confederations ruled most of what is now northern Niger, and extended their influence into modern Nigeria. Sony VAIO VGN-CS51B/W Battery

In the 18th century, Fula pastoralists moved into the Liptako area of the west, while smaller Zarma kingdoms, siding with variousHausa states, clashed with the expanding Fulani Empire of Sokoto from the south. Sony VAIO VGN-CS52JB/W Battery

The colonial border with British Nigeria was in part based on the rupture between the Sokoto Caliphate to the south, and Hausa ruling dynasties which had fled to the north. In the far east around the Lake Chad basin, the successive expansion of the Kanem Empire and Bornu Empire spread ethnically Kanuriand Toubou rulers and their subject states as far west as Zinder and the Kaouar Oases from the 10th to the 17th centuries. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/P Battery

In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German) explored the area, searching for the source of the Niger River. Although French efforts at "pacification" began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not fully subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/Q Battery

Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general in Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/R Battery

the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.

Early independence

A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956, Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/P Battery

followed by reorganizing measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/Q Battery

Niger became an autonomous state within theFrench Community. Following full independence on 3 August 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse.

Single party and military rule (1961-1991)

President Hamani Diori and visiting German President Dr.Heinrich L bke greet crowds on a state visit to Niamey, 1969. Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/R Battery

Diori's single party rule was characterized by good relations with the west and a preoccupation with foreign affairs.

For its first fourteen years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency ofHamani Diori. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/P Battery

In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a coup d' tat that overthrew the Diori regime. Col. Seyni Kountch and a small military group ruled the country until Kountch 's death in 1987.^[8] Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/Q Battery

He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution, with the creation of a single party constitutional Second Republic. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-partydemocratic system. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/R Battery

The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990.

New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national peace conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. Sony VAIO VGN-CS71B/W Battery

The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. Andr Salifou, the conference developed a plan for a transition government.

Third Republic

This caretaker government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. Sony VAIO VGN-CS72JB/W Battery

While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and non-violent nationwide elections. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90HS Battery

Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

The results of the January 1995 parliamentary election meant cohabitation between a rival president and prime minister; this led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Bar Ma nassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic in January 1996. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90NS Battery

Military rule and the Fourth Republic

While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Bar enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90S Battery

Bar organized a presidential election in July 1996. While voting was still going on, he replaced the electoral commission. The new commission declared him the winner after the polls closed. His party won 57% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91HS Battery

When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bar ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91NS Battery

In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91S Battery

As part of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all, meaning Tuareg and Toubougroups that had been in rebellion since 1990. The Tuareg claimed they lacked attention and resources from the central government. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92DS Battery

The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.

Fifth Republic since 1999

On 9 April 1999, Bar was killed in a coup led by Maj. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92JS Battery

Sony VAIO VGN-CS92XS Battery Daouda Malam Wank , who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system.

In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, Sony VAIO VGN-FW11E Battery

the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the election. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11L Battery

The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on 30 December 2002. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days.

The legislature elected in December 2004 contained seven political parties. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M Battery

President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was re-elected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S Battery

In June 2007, Seyni Oumarou was nominated as the new Prime Minister after Hama Amadou was democratically forced out of office by the National Assembly through a motion of no confidence. From 2007 to 2008, the Second Tuareg Rebellion took place in northern Niger, worsening economic prospects and shutting down political progress. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11ZU Battery

In a February 2010 coup d' tat, a military junta was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political termthrough constitutional manipulation. The coup established a junta led by the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, which then held elections in 2011 that were judged internationally to be free and fair. Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H Battery

Politics

Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140AE Battery

As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral National Assembly was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5 year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140D Battery

The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place on 24 July 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E Battery

in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/H Battery

On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament was elected within three months.^[9] Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/W Battery

This touched off a political struggle between Tandja, trying to extend his term-limited authority beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic, and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009. See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140FE Battery

The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption.

The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N Battery

A presidential election was held on on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time.^[10][11][12] Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N/W Battery

Regions, departments, and communes

Niger is divided into 7 Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E Battery

As of 2006 there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes, in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones. Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E/W Battery

Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. Sony VAIO VGN-FW160AE Battery

These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level.

The pre-2002 departments (renamed as regions) and capital district : Sony VAIO VGN-FW160D Battery

Foreign relations

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Sony VAIO VGN-FW160E Battery

Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors.

It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority andLake Chad Basin Commission, Sony VAIO VGN-FW160E/H Battery

the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority. Sony VAIO VGN-FW160F/E Battery

The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lete Island in the River Niger was finally solved by the ICJ in 2005 to Niger's advantage.

Military

The Niger Armed Forces total 12,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 6,000 army personnel. Sony VAIO VGN-FW170J/H Battery

The air force has four operational transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N'Gourti, and Madewela. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180AE Battery

Since January 2003, Niger has deployed a company of troops to C te d'Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. In 1991, Niger sent four hundred military personnel to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War.

Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180D Battery

France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya have also provided military assistance. Approximately 15 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with military hardware either sold or donated by France. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180E Battery

In the past, U.S. assistance focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180E/H Battery

A U.S. Defense Attach office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d' tat. A U.S. Defense Attach office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d'Ivoire in 2003. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180FU Battery

Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a select contingent of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan Sahel Initiative.

In February 2010, the army of Niger staged another coup d' tat, that ousted President Tandja Mamadou, who had been behaving in an increasingly dictatorial fashion. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190EBH Battery

The army claims to be acting toward the restoration of democracy.

Transport

The road border entering Niger from Benin at Gaya. Niger relies on its neighbors, especially Benin andNigeria, for seaports which provide access to world markets. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190ECH Battery

Transport is crucial to the economy and culture of this vast landlocked nation, with cities separated by huge uninhabited deserts, mountain ranges, and other natural features. Niger's transport system was little developed during the colonial period (1899-1960), relying upon animal transport, human transport, and limited river transport in the far south west and south east. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190EDH Battery

No railways were constructed in the colonial period, and most roads outside the capital remained unpaved. The Niger River is unsuitable for river transport of any large scale, as it lacks depth for most of the year, and is broken by rapids at many spots. Camel caravan transport was historically important in the Sahara desert and Sahel regions which cover most of the north. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190NAH Battery

Road

Road transport, especially shared taxis, buses, and trucks, are the primary form of long distance transport for most Nigeriens. There were 10,100 km of roads in the nation in 1996, but only 798 km were paved. Most of this total was in large cities and in two main highways. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190NBH Battery

The first major paved highway was constructed in the 1970s and 80s to transport uranium from the far northern mining town of Arlit to the Benin border. (Much of Niger's export economy relies upon ports in Cotonou, Lom , and Port Harcourt.) This road, dubbed the Uranium Highway runs through Arlit, Agadez, Tahoua, Birnin-Konni, Sony VAIO VGN-FW190NCH Battery

and Niamey, and is part of the Trans-Sahara Highway system. The paved RN1 ("Routes Nationale") runs east-west across the south of the nation, from Niamey via Maradiand Zinder towards Diffa in the far east of the nation, although the stretch from Zinder to Diffa is only partially paved. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190NDH Battery

Other roads range from all-weather laterite surfaces to grated dirt or sand pistes, especially in the desert north. These form a more extensive numbered highway system.

Air transport

Niger's main international airport is Diori Hamani International Airport at Niamey. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190NEH Battery Other airports in Niger include Mano Dayak International Airport at Agadez andZinder Airport near Zinder.

Economy

The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FW198U/H Battery

Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), Sony VAIO VGN-FW260J/B Battery

with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).^[13]

In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Sony VAIO VGN-FW280J/H Battery

Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, Sony VAIO VGN-FW290JRB Battery

HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction.

In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately $86 million USD in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Sony VAIO VGN-FW290JTB Battery

Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years. A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens. Sony VAIO VGN-FW290JTH Battery

Agriculture

The agricultural economy is based largely upon internal markets, subsistence agriculture, and the export of raw commodities: food stuffs and cattle to neighbors.^[14] Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population.^[14] Sony VAIO VGN-FW290JTW Battery

14% of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production (camels, goats, sheep and cattle), said to support 29% of the population. Thus 53% of the population is actively involved in crop production.^[14] The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Sony VAIO VGN-FW355J/H Battery

In these areas, Pearl millet, sorghum, and cassava are the principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Irrigated rice for internal consumption is grown in parts of the Niger River valley in the west. While expensive, it has, since the devaluation of the CFA franc, sold for below the price of imported rice, encouraging additional production. Sony VAIO VGN-FW373J/B Battery

Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are small quantities of garlic, peppers, potatoes, and wheat. Oasis farming in small patches of the north of the country produces onions, dates, and some market vegetables for export.^[14] Sony VAIO VGN-FW30B Battery

But for the most part, rural residents engaged in crop tending are clustered in the south centre and south west of the nation, in those areas (the Sahel) which can expect to receive between 300 to 600 mm (12 to 24 in) of rainfall annually. A small area in the southern tip of the nation, surrounding Gaya can expect to receive 700 to 900 mm (28 to 35 in) or rainfall. Sony VAIO VGN-FW50B Battery

Northern areas which support crops, such as the southern portions of the A r Massif and the Kaouar oasis, rely upon oases and a slight increase in rainfall due to mountain effects. Large portions of the northwest and far east of the nation, while within the Sahara desert, see just enough seasonal rainfall to support semi-nomadic animal husbandry. Sony VAIO VGN-FW51B/W Battery

The populations of these areas, mostly Tuareg, Wodaabe - Fula, and Toubou, travel south (a process calledtranshumance) to pasture and sell animals in the dry season, north into the Sahara in the brief rainy season.^[8]

Rainfall varies and when it is insufficient, Sony VAIO VGN-FW51MF Battery

Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements.^[14] Rains, as in much of the Sahel, have been marked by annual variability. This has been especially true in the 20th century, with the most severe drought on record beginning in the late 1960s and lasting, with one break, well into the 1980s. Sony VAIO VGN-FW51MF/H Battery

The long-term effect of this, especially to pastoralist populations, remains in the 21st century, with those communities which rely upon cattle, sheep, and camels husbandry losing entire herds more than once during this period. Recent rains remain variable. For instance, the rains in 2000 were not good, those in 2001 were plentiful and well distributed. Sony VAIO VGN-FW51ZF Battery

The Kandadji Dam on the Niger River, whose construction started in August 2008, is expected to improve agricultural production in theTillaberi Department by providing water for the irrigation of 6,000 hectares initially and of 45,000 hectares by 2034.^[15] Sony VAIO VGN-FW51ZF/H Battery

Exports

Uranium is Niger's largest export. Foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Sony VAIO VGN-FW52JB Battery

Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts. Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger.

Uranium

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. Sony VAIO VGN-FW54FB Battery

The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Sony VAIO VGN-FW70DB Battery

Niger's two uranium mines SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests. However, as of 2007, many licences have been given to other companies from countries such asIndia, Canada and Australia in order to exploit new deposits. Sony VAIO VGN-FW71DB/W Battery

Gold

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On 5 October 2004, President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in Tera Department and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. Sony VAIO VGN-FW72JGB Battery

This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country.

Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako) which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company,Societe Semafo, Sony VAIO VGN-FW73JGB Battery

and a Canadian company, Etruscan Resources. Both companies own 80% (40% - 40%) of SML and the Government of Niger 20%. The first year's production is predicted to be 135,000 troy ounces (4,200 kg; 9,260 lb avoirdupois) of gold at a cash value of USD 177 per ounce ($5.70/g). Sony VAIO VGN-FW74FB Battery

The mine reserves for the Samira Hill mine total 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of 2.21 grams per ton from which 618,000 troy ounces (19,200 kg; 42,400 lb) will be recovered over a 6 year mine life. SML believes to have a number of significant gold deposits within what is now recognized as the gold belt known as the "Samira Horizon",Sony VAIO VGN-FW81HS Battery

which is located between Gotheye and Ouallam.^[16]

Coal

The parastatal SONICHAR (Soci t Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. Sony VAIO VGN-FW81NS Battery

There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable.

Oil

Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado permit was awarded to Hunt Oil Company, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to theChina National Petroleum. Sony VAIO VGN-FW81S Battery

An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture was sold sole rights to the Agadem block, in the Diffa Region north ofLake Chad, but never went beyond exploration.

In June 2008, the government transferred the Agadem block rights to CNPC. Sony VAIO VGN-FW82DS Battery

Niger announced that in exchange for the US$5 billion investment, the Chinese company would build wells, 11 of which would open by 2012, a 20,000-barrel-per-day (3,200 m³/d) refinery nearZinder and a pipeline out of the nation. Sony VAIO VGN-FW82JS Battery

The government estimates the area has reserves of 324 million barrels (51,500,000 m³), and is seeking further oil in the Tenere Desert and near Bilma. Niger has said that it hopes to produce its first barrels of oil for sale by 2009.^[17] Sony VAIO VGN-FW82XS Battery

Growth rates

The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaut Financi re Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. Sony VAIO VGN-FW83DS Battery

But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003. Sony VAIO VGN-FW83JS Battery

In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. Sony VAIO VGN-FW83XS Battery

With the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.

Economic restructuring and debt

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems including a virtually empty treasury, Sony VAIO VGN-FW90HS Battery

past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF).^[14] Sony VAIO VGN-FW90NS Battery

In addition to changes in the budgetary process and public finances, the new government has pursued economic restructuring towards the IMF promoted privatization model. This has included the privatization of water distribution and telecommunications and the removal of price protections for petroleum products, allowing prices to be set by world market prices. Sony VAIO VGN-FW90S Battery

Further privatizations of public enterprises are in the works.

In its effort to comply with the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility plan, the government also is taking actions to reduce corruption and, as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, Sony VAIO VGN-FW91NS Battery

has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Planthat focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, and judicial restructuring.^[14] A long planned privitisation of the Nigerien power company, NIGELEC, failed in 2001 and again in 2003 due to inaudibility to line up buyers. Sony VAIO VGN-FW91S Battery SONITEL, the nation's telephone operator, hived of the post office and privatised in 2001, was renationalised in 2009.

Critics have argued that the obligations to creditor institutions and governments have locked Niger in to a process of trade liberalization that is harmful for small farmers and in particular, rural women.^[18] Sony VAIO VGN-FW92DS Battery

A rural mother tends to her malnourished infant at the Maradi MSF aid centre, during the 2005-2006 Niger food crisis. While theMaradi Region is the breadbasket of Niger, the 20th century saw three severe Sahel droughts which brought dramatic food insecurity to even the most fertile regions of Niger. Sony VAIO VGN-FW92JS Battery

Foreign aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF and other United Nations agencies (UNDP,UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA). Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. Sony VAIO VGN-FW93DS Battery

While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development.

The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS. Sony VAIO VGN-FW93JS Battery

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources.^[14] Sony VAIO VGN-FW93XS Battery

In 2005 the UN drew attention to the increased need for foreign aid given severe problems with drought and locusts resulting in the 2005-06 Niger food crisis, endangering the lives around a million people.

2010 famine

In June to August 2010, famine struck the Sahel.^[19] Niger's crops to failed to mature in the heat and famine developed. Sony VAIO VGN-FW94FS Battery

350,000 faced starvation and 1,200,000 were at risk of famine.^[20] In Chad, the temperature reached 47.6 C (118 F) on 22 June in Faya-Largeau, breaking a record set in 1961 at the same location. Niger tied its highest temperature record set in 1998, on also 22 June, at 47.1 C (117 F) in Bilma. Sony VAIO VGN-FW94GS Battery

That record was broken the next day, on 23 June when Bilma hit 48.2 C (119 F). The hottest temperature recorded in Sudan was reached on 25 June, at 49.6 C (121 F) in Dongola, breaking a record set in 1987.^[21] Sony VAIO VGN-FW94HS Battery

Niger reported diarrhoea, starvation, gastroenteritis, malnutrition and respiratory diseases killed and sickened many children 14 July. The new military junta is appealing for international food aid and has taken serious steps to calling overseas help since coming to office in February 2010.^[22] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11E Battery

On 26 July, the heat reached near record levels over Chad and Niger.^[23]

Demographics

Over half the population of Niger belong to the Hausa,^[24] who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Zarma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11L Battery

Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country.

The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou who make up about 20% of Niger's population.^[25] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11M Battery

With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.^[26]

A Nigerien study has found that more than 800,000 people are enslaved, almost 8% of the population.^[27][28][29] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11S Battery

Health

Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ11Z Battery

According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate.^[30] Nonetheless, Niger has the highest fertility rate in the world (7.2 births per woman); this means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2004. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E Battery

Education

Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years.^[31] The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls.^[31] In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent.^[31] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130E/B Battery

About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years.^[31] Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods.^[31] In addition, nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.^[31] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ130EB Battery

Culture and religion

Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E Battery

the Zarmadominated Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the Sokoto Caliphate, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140E/B Battery

populated byKanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Kanem-Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg nomads of the A r Mountains and Saharan desert in the vast north.

Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140EB Battery

brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N Battery

and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism.

Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140N/B Battery

At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between Birni-N'Konni and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%,^[32] including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrassas. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ140QE Battery

Religion

Islam, spread from North Africa beginning in the 10th century, has greatly shaped the mores of the people of Niger. Between 80 to more than 98% of the population is Muslim, with small Animist and Christian communities, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ145E Battery

the latter a consequence of missionaries established during the French colonial years, as well as urban expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa.

Islam

Approximately 95% of Muslims in Niger are Sunni and Sufi;^[33] 5% are Shi'a. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15 Battery

^[34] Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the Songhai Empire in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan tradetraveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Kanem-Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber practices. Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E Battery

Both Zarma and Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th and 19th century Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the Sokoto Caliphate (in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufibrotherhoods, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150E/BC Battery

although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and theSanusiya in the far northeast.^[33]

A small center of Wahhabite followers have appeared in the last thirty years in the capital and in Maradi.^[35] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ150EBC Battery

These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots^[36][37][38]

Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law.^[39] Interfaith relations are deemed very good, Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15G Battery

and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country is marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom.^[40]Divorce and polygyny are unremarkable, women are not secluded, and headcoverings are not mandatory they are often a rarity in urban areas.^[41] Sony VAIO VGN-FZ15L Battery

Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bi re Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.

The Nigerian immigrants, without valid travel documents, continue to illegally enter Ghana and have become a burden in Ghana,^[74] with the vast majority being beggars in the cities of Ghana, mainly in Accra.^[75] Even so, Ghana is ranked as the 3rd most peaceful country in Africa and the 42nd most peaceful country in the world,^[76] Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R Battery which has led to most of the crimes in Ghana being brought along with the Nigerian immigrants, such as passport fraud by falsifying Ghanaian passports,^[77] drug trafficking, arms trafficking, kidnapping,^[78]armed robbery, rape, prostitution,^[79] Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W Battery fraud (E-fraud, their infamous crimes dubbed 419advance fee fraud and Nigerian scam), and other illegal activities.^[80] In May 2011, Nigerian immigrants made up the greater percentage of foreign prisoners, out of the 707 foreign nationals serving jail time in Ghana,Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L Battery with Togolese, Beninois,Liberians, Cameroonians, the ethnic group Fulani,^[81]Americans, British, Chinese, and other African and Western nationals, who are serving various sentences for crimes, including kidnapping, car-jacking, armed robbery, rape, and the narcotics mainly from the Americans and British nationals.^[82] Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P Battery

Oil reserves in Ghana

Commercial quantities of offshore oil reserves in Ghana were discovered in the 1970s, by 1990 production was still negligible. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R Battery In 1983 the government established the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) to promote exploration and production, and the company reached agreements with a number of foreign firms. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W Battery The most important of these permitted US-based Amoco to prospect in ten offshore blocks between Ada and the western border with Togo. Petro-Canada International had prospected in the Tano RiverBasin, and Diamond Shamrock in the Keta Basin. Sony VAIO VGN-CR15/B Battery In 1989 three companies, two American and one Dutch, spent US$30 million drilling wells in the Tano basin. On 21 June 1992, an offshore Tano basin well produced about 6,900 barrels (1,100 m³) of crude oil daily.^[83] Sony VAIO VGN-CR150E/B Battery In the early 1990s, GNPC reviewed all earlier crude oil and natural gas discoveries to determine whether a predominantly local operation might make exploitation more commercially viable. GNPC wanted to set up a floating system for production, storage, off-loading, Sony VAIO VGN-CR190 Battery processing, and gas-turbine electricity generation, hoping to produce 22 billion cubic feet (620,000,000 m³) per day, from which 135 megawatts of power could be generated and fed into the national and regional grid. GNPC also won a contract in 1992 with Angola's state oil company, Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/L Battery Sonangol Group, that provides for drilling and, ultimately, production at two of Sonangol's offshoreoilfields. GNPC was paid with a share of the crude oil.^[83] The country's Tema Oil Refinery underwent the first phase of a major rehabilitation in 1989. Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/P Battery The second phase began in April 1990 at an estimated cost of US$36 million. Once rehabilitation was completed, distribution of liquified petroleum gas was to be improved, and the quantity supplied was to rise from 28,000 to 34,000 barrels per day. Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/R Battery Construction on the new Tema-Akosombo oil products pipeline, designed to improve the distribution system further, began in January 1992. The pipeline was to carry refined products from Tema to Akosombo Port, where they will be transported across Lake Voltato northern regions. Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/W Battery Distribution continued to be uneven, however. Other measures to improve the situation included a US$28 million project to set up a national network of storage depots in all regions.^[83] The Tema Lube Oil Company commissioned its new oil blending plant, designed to produce 25,000 tons of oil per year, in 1992. Sony VAIO VGN-CR19VN/B Battery The plant was to satisfy all of Ghana's requirements for motor and gear lubricants and 60 percent of the country's need for industrial lubricants, or, in all, 90 percent of Ghana's demand for lubricant products. Shareholders included Mobil, Sony VAIO VGN-CR19XN/B Battery Shell, and British Petroleum (together accounting for 48 percent of equity), Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, and theSocial Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT).^[83] An oilfield which is reported to contain up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of light oil was discovered in 2007.^[84] Sony VAIO VGN-CR20 Battery Oil and Gas exploration is ongoing, and the amount of both oil and gas continues to increase.^[85] There is expected to be a tremendous inflow of capital into the economy beginning from the first quarter of 2011 when the country starts producing oil in commercial quantities. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B Battery The oil is expected to account for 6% of the revenue for 2011.^[86] Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m³) of oil in reserves,^[87]which is the 6th largest in Africa and the 25th largest proven reserves in the world. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L Battery

Seaport

Tema Port, officially opened in 1962, is the biggest of the two seaports in Ghana, and is Africa's largest manmade harbour. It has a water-enclosed area of 1.7 square kilometres (0.66 sq mi) and a total land area of 3.9 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi). Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P Battery Apart from handling goods for Ghana, it is also a traffic junction, where goods are transhipped, and transit cargo destined for the landlocked countries of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger are received in addition of major corruption and criminal activities that persist at both the Tema Harbour and Takoradi Harbour.^[88] Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W Battery The port of Tema handles 80% of the nation's import and export cargo. Most of the country's chief export, cacao, is shipped from Tema. The port has 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of breakwaters, 12 deepwater berths, an outsize oil tankerberth, a dockyard, warehouses, and transit sheds. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L Battery The port has open and covered areas for the storage of cargo, including a 77,200-m (7.72-hectare) paved area for the storage of containers, steel products and other conventional cargo. The port's container yard is capable of holding over 8,000 TEUs at any given time.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P Battery The closed storage area, which is about 25,049 m (2.51 hectares) in area, consists of six sheds with a total storage capacity of 50,000 tonnes of cargo. The port also includes a 100,000 dwt dry dock and slipway facility.^[89] The Tema andTakoradi harbours are operated by the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W Battery

Geography

Ghana is a country located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, therefore giving it a warm climate. The country spans an area of 238,500 km² (92,085 sq mi). Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N Battery It is surrounded by Togo to the east, C te d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north and the Gulf of Guinea (Atlantic Ocean) to the south. Ghana lies between latitudes 4 and 12 N, and longitudes 4 W and 2 E. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/R Battery The Prime Meridian passes through the country, specifically through the industrial city of Tema. Ghana is geographically closer to the "centre" of the world than any other country even though the notional centre, (0 , 0 ) is located in the Atlantic Ocean approximately 614 km (382 mi) south of Accra, Ghana, in the Gulf of Guinea.^[90] Sony VAIO VGN-CR220E/R Battery Lake Volta in Ghana is the largest reservoir in the world, extending from the Akosombo Dam in southeastern Ghana to the town ofYapei, some 400 kilometres (250 mi) to the north. The lake generates electricity, provides inland transport, and is a potentially valuable resource for irrigation and fish farming.Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/B Battery The country encompasses flat plains, low hills and a few rivers. Ghana can be divided into five different geographical regions. The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams while the northern part of the country features high plains. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/L Battery Southwest and south central Ghana is made up of a forested plateau region consisting of the Ashanti uplands and the Kwahu Plateau; the hilly Akuapim-Togo ranges are found along the country's eastern border. The Volta Basin also takes up most of central Ghana. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/N Battery Ghana's highest point is Mount Afadjato which is 885 m (2,904 ft) and is found in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges. The climate istropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, the southwest corner is hot and humid, and the north is hot and dry. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/P Battery Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, extends through large portions of eastern Ghana and is the main source of many tributary rivers such as the Oti and Afram rivers. There are two main seasons in Ghana: the wet and the dry seasons. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/R Battery Northern Ghana experiences its rainy season from March to November while the south, including the capital Accra, experiences the season from April to mid-November. Southern Ghana contains evergreen and semi deciduous forests consisting of trees such as mahogany, odumand ebony. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/W Battery It also contains much of Ghana's oil palms and mangroves. Shea trees, baobabsandacacias are usually found in the Volta region and the northern part of the country. Sony VAIO VGN-CR240E/B Battery

Demographics

Ghana has a population of about 24 million people and a diaspora population of 4 million.^[91] Ghana's first post-independence population census in 1960 counted about 6.7 million inhabitants.^[92] Sony VAIO VGN-CR240N/B Battery Ghana is home to more than 100 different ethnic groups. Ghana has not seen the kind of ethnic conflict that has created civil wars in many other African countries.^[93] The official language is English; however, most Ghanaians also speak at least one local language. Sony VAIO VGN-CR25G/N Battery The ethnic groups in Ghana are the Akan (which includes the Fante, Akyem, Ashanti, Kwahu, Akuapem, Nzema, Bono, Akwamu,Ahanta and others) 45.3%, Mole-Dagbon 15.2%, Ewe 11.7%, Ga-Dangme (comprising the Ga, Adangbe, Ada, Krobo and others) 7.3%, Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAL Battery Guan 4%, Gurma 3.6%, Gurunsi 2.6%, Mande-Busanga 1%, other tribes (Hausa, Zabarema, Fulani and Others) 1.4%, other (among them whites of mostly Scottish descent and English descent) 7.8% (2000 census). According to the CIA World Factbook, religious divisions are as follows: Christian 68.8%, Muslim 15.9%, Traditional African beliefs 8.5%.^[94][95] Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAN Battery Cities This is a list of the largest cities, each region may include several cities, which are in very close proximity to each other.

Health

As of 2009, life expectancy at birth is about 59 years for males and 60 years for females ^[97] with infant mortality at 51 per 1000 live births.^[97] Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAP Battery The total fertility rate is about 4 children per woman. There are about 15 physicians and 93 nurses per 100,000 persons.^[98] 4.5% of the country's GDP was spent on health in 2003.^[98] Attempts to improve the healthcare system in Ghana have been hampered by a very high rate of corruption within the Ghana Ministry of Health, Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAR Battery Ghana Health Service and National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS).^[99] The corruption is then inflated by unnecessary additional support from January 2012, by the European Commission of 52 million (GH 110 million) to reduce maternal mortality and achieve the MDG 5 targets, in which Ghana can independently achieve without foreign aid donations.^[56] Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAW Battery

Languages

Ethnologue lists a total of 79 languages^[100] for Ghana. English is the country's official language and predominates in government and business affairs. It is also the standard language used for educational instruction. Sony VAIO VGN-CR29XN/B Battery Native Ghanaian languages are divided into two linguistic subfamilies of the Niger-Congo language family. Languages belonging to the Kwa subfamily are found predominantly to the south of the Volta River, while those belonging to the Gur subfamily are found predominantly to the north. Sony VAIO VGN-CR305E/RC Battery The Kwa group, which is spoken by about 80% of the country's population, includes the Akan, Ga-Dangme (which includes Krobo), and Ewe languages. The Gur group includes the Gurma, Grusi, and Dagbani languages.^[101] Nine languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: Sony VAIO VGN-CR31S/D Battery Akan, specifically Ashanti Twi,Fanti, Akuapem Twi, Akyem, Kwahu, Ahanta, Nzema; Dagaare/Wale, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja and Kasem. Though not an official language, Hausa is the lingua francaamong Ghana's Muslims^[102] who comprise about 16% of the population. Sony VAIO VGN-CR323/W Battery Since 2007, all university and college institutions in Ghana provided Chinese languagecourses. This initiative reflected the People's Republic of China's growing role as a superpower and Ghana's close ties with China.^[103] In addition, as an OIF associated-member, French is increasingly taught in Ghana's high schools.^[104] Sony VAIO VGN-CR33 Battery

Religion

Christianity is the country's largest religion, and predominates in southern areas and parts of the northern regions, withfalse prophecy having a large presence throughout Ghana due to mass poverty,^[68] while Islam is most populous in a few parts of the northern regions.Sony VAIO VGN-CR382 Battery Christian-Muslim relations in Ghana are peaceful, tolerant and bilateral, despite sectarian violence in neighboring countries with similar regional divides like Nigeria.^[105] In many parts of the country, there is still the practice of traditional African religions and these are sometimes intermixed with Christianity or Islam. Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBL Battery They generally involve belief in a supreme being along with a pantheon of lesser gods. Ancestors and spirits also play a large role in these beliefs, as do animist aspects.^[106] Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana, practiced by approximately 69 percent of the population, according to the 2000 census.^[107] Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBN Battery Up until the arrival of the Europeans on the coasts of Ghana in the fourteenth century, the religion that was practiced in southern Ghana was traditional African religion. As the Europeans explored parts of the country during the colonial days, Christianity spread.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBP Battery Christian denominations include Catholicism, Methodism, Anglicanism, Presbyterianism,Lutheranism, Seventh-Day Adventism, Pentecostalism, Baptists etc.^[108] Islam was the faith of 15.6% of the population in 2000.^[107] Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBR Battery There are three primary branches of Islam within the country: the largest group are Sunnis of the traditional Malikischool of thought, followed by the Sufi Tijani-brotherhood who are also Sunni Malikis, and a small number of Shia in urban areas in the south. Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBT Battery There are also very small percentages of other religions in Ghana, including Buddhism(Shintoism and Ninchiren Shoshu S ka Gakkai), Ghana's Hindu Monastery headed bySwami Ghananand Saraswati (Hinduism, Hare Krishna, Sat Sang and Sri Sathya Sai Baba Sera), Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBW Battery Bah ' Faith, Jehovah's Witnesses (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Eckankar and the Divine Light Mission), Judaism, and the Rastafari movement. According to the census figures of the year 2000, out of Ghana's 18.8 million people, Sony VAIO VGN-CR50B/W Battery Christians make up 69 percent of the population while Muslims constitute 2.9 million, representing 15.6 percent of the population.^[109] Ghana is a Christian country, which in the past was also a peaceful country, and does not fight with the other religions in the country.^[105][110] Sony VAIO VGN-CR51B/W Battery As of January 2012, Ghana is ranked currently as the 3rd most peaceful country in Africa and the 42nd most peaceful country in the world.^[76]

Culture and media

Ghana is an ethnically diverse country; thus, Ghanaian culture is a mixture of all its ethnic groups, Sony VAIO VGN-CR520E/J Battery the Akan, Ga, Ewe, Mamprusi and Dagomba, among others but, the culture goes in line with the demographics and is thus predominantly Akan. Ghana's cultural diversity is most evident in Ghanaian cuisine, the arts and clothing.

Sports

Football is the most popular sport. Sony VAIO VGN-CR52B/W Battery The national men's football team is known as the Black Stars, with the under-20 team known as the Black Satellites. Ghana has participated in many championships including the African Cup of Nations, the FIFA World Cup and the FIFA U-20 World Cup.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBL Battery In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Ghana became the third African country to reach the quarter final stage of the World Cup after Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002.^[111]There are several club football teams in Ghana, Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBN Battery which play in theGhana Premier League and Division One League, both managed by the Ghana Football Association. The country has also produced quite a few quality boxers such as Azumah Nelson a three time world champion, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey. Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBP Battery

Arts

Textiles are very important in Ghanaian culture. These cloths are used to make traditional and modern attire. Different symbols and different colours mean different things. Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBR Battery Kente is probably the most famous of all the Ghanaian cloths. Kente is an Akanceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom. Strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths. Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBT Battery Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions. In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth. It is a visual representation of history and also form of a written language through weaving.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBW Battery The term kente has its roots in the Twi word k nt nwhich means a basket. The first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth. Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/L Battery The original Asante name of the cloth was nsaduaso or nwontoma, meaning "a cloth hand-woven on a loom"; however, the term kente is the most popularly used term today. Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/P Battery Many variations of narrow-strip cloths similar to kente are woven by various ethnic groups in Ghana like the Ewe, Ga and others Ghana. It is also popular among the African diaspora.Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/R Battery Ghana has been recognized on the international level through several artists, including the Kane Kwei Carpentry Workshop and Eric Adjetey Anang who are creating the famous design coffins.

Music

The music of Ghana is diverse. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/L Battery The sound varies from ethnic group and region. Ghanaian music incorporates several distinct types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/N Battery The most well known genres to have come from Ghana are Afro-jazz which was created by Ghanaian artist Kofi Ghanaba.^[112] and its earliest form of secular music is called highlife. Highlife originated in the late 19th century and early 20th century and spread throughout West Africa. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/P Battery In the 1990s a new genre of music was created by the youth incorporating the influences of Highlife Afro-reggae, dancehall and hiphop. This hybrid was called Hiplife. Ghanaian artists such as R&B and soul singer Rhian Benson and highlife singer Kojo Antwi have had international success. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/R Battery

Dance

Ghanaian dance is as diverse as its music. Each ethnic group has their own traditional dances and there are different dances for different occasions. There are dances for funerals, celebrations, storytelling, praise and worship etc. Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/L Battery Some of these dances include bamaya, adowa, kpanlogo (azonto), klama, agbadza, atsiagbekor, atsia, b b b , and agahu.

Media

The media of Ghana is one of the most free in Africa and had previously undergone a series of government overthrows by military leaders and periods of severe restriction. Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/N Battery Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship.^[113] Post independence, the government and media often had a tense relationship, Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/P Battery with private outlets closed during the military coups and strict media laws that prevent criticism of government.^[114] The media freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of John Agyekum Kufuorthe tensions between the private media and government decreased. Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/R Battery Kufuor was a supporter of press freedom and repealed a libellaw, though maintained that the media had to act responsibly.^[115] The Ghanaian media has been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa, operating with little restriction on private media. Sony VAIO VGN-CR70B/W Battery The private press often carries criticism of government policy.^[116] The media were vigorous in their coverage of the 2008 Ghanaian presidential election, and the Ghanaian Journalists Association (GJA) praised John Atta Mills on his election, hoping to foster a good media-government relationship.^[117] Sony VAIO VGN-CR71B/W Battery

Education

The adult literacy rate in Ghana was 65% in 2007, with males at 71.7% and females at 58.3%. Ghana has a 6-year primary education system beginning at age six, and, under the educational reforms implemented in 1987 and reformed in 2007, they pass on to a 3-year junior high school system. Sony VAIO VGN-CR72B/W Battery At the end of the 3rd year of junior high, there is a mandatory "Basic Education Certificate Examination". Those continuing must complete the 3-year senior high school program and take an admission exam to enter any university or tertiary programme. Sony VAIO VGN-CR90HS Battery Presently, Ghana has 21,530 primary schools, 8,850 junior secondary schools, 900 senior secondary schools, 52^[118] public training colleges, 5^[118] private training colleges, 5^[118]polytechnical institutions, 4^[118] non-university public tertiary institutions, Sony VAIO VGN-CR90NS Battery 8^[118] public universities and over 45^[118] private tertiary institutions. Most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to primary and secondary education. These numbers can be contrasted with the single university and handful of secondary and primary schools that existed at the time of independence in 1957. Sony VAIO VGN-CR90S Battery Ghana's spending on education has varied between 28-40% of its annual budget in the past decade. All teaching is done in English, mostly by qualified Ghanaian educators. The courses taught at the primary or basic school level include English, Sony VAIO VGN-CR92HS Battery Ghanaian language and culture, mathematics, environmental studies, social studies and French as a third language are added, integrated or general science, pre-vocational skills and pre-technical skills, religious and moral education, and physical activities such as music, dance and physical education. Sony VAIO VGN-CR92NS Battery The senior high level school curriculum has core subjects and elective subjects of which students must take four the core subjects of English language, mathematics, integrated science (including science, agriculture and environmental studies) and social studies (economics, geography, history and government). Sony VAIO VGN-CR92S Battery The high school students also choose 3 elective subjects from 5 available programmes: agriculture programme, general programme (arts or science option), business programme, vocational programme and technical programme.^[119] Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/Q Battery Apart from most primary and secondary schools which choose the Ghanaian system of schooling, there are also international schools such as the Ghana International School, Takoradi International School, Tema International School, Galaxy International School, Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/R Battery The Roman Ridge School, Lincoln Community School, Faith Montessori School, American International School, SOS Hermann Gmeiner International College and International Community School, which offer the International Baccalaureat, Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/W Battery Advanced Level General Certificate of Education and the International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE). With 83% of its children in school, Ghana currently has one of the highest school enrollment rates in West Africa.^[120] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P Battery The ratio of girls to boys in the total education system is 1:0.96, which for a West African country is a considerable achievement.^[121]That said, some 500,000 children still remain out of school because of corruption, which has led to resource constraints in building schools, providing adequate textbooks and training new teachers.^[121] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q Battery Ghana's tertiary education sector is growing rapidly. There are six national public universities in Ghana, the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Cape Coast, University of Education, Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W Battery University for Development Studies and University of Mines and Technology.^[122] Ghana also has a growing number of accredited private universities including Ashesi University College, Central University College, Catholic University College and Valley View University.^[123] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R Battery The oldest university in Ghana, The University of Ghana, was founded in 1948. It had a total of about 29,754 students in 2008. Its programmes in the Arts, Humanities, Business, and the Social Sciences, as well as Medicine are the best in the country. Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/P Battery The University has produced the bulk of lawyers and politicians in the country. Unfortunately, the university's stiff opposition to the standard of a new senior secondary school system have seen a shift of its traditionally best students to the Kwame Nkrumah University.^[124] Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/Q Battery Since Ghana's independence, the country has been one of the educational hot spots in sub-Saharan Africa and has played host to notables such as President Robert Mugabeof Zimbabwe, Alhaji Sir Dawda Jawara of The Gambia and Cyprian Ekwensi of Nigeriaamong others. Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/R Battery Former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan has been chancellor of the University of Ghana since 2008. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, the second university to be established in Ghana, is the premier university of science and technology in Ghana and West Africa. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTB Battery The economy of Ghana, West Africa, has a diverse and rich resource base, and as such, has one of the highest GDP per capita in Africa. Ghana remains somewhat dependent on international financial and technical assistance as well as the activities of the extensive Ghanaian diaspora. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTP Battery Gold, timber, cocoa, diamond, bauxite, and manganese exports are major sources of foreign exchange.^[6] An oilfield which is reported to contain up to 3 billion barrels (480 10⁶ m³) of light oil was discovered in 2007.^[7] Oil exploration is ongoing and, the amount of oil continues to increase.^[8] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTQ Battery The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 35% of GDP and employs 55% of the work force,^[6] mainly small landholders. On the negative side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTR Battery depreciation of the Cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. Furthermore, according to the World Bank, Ghana's per capita incomehas barely doubled over the past 45 years.^[9] Even so, Ghana remains one of the more economically sound countries in all of Africa. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTW Battery The country has, since July 2007, embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from Cedi ( ) to the new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH ). The transfer rate is 1 Ghana Cedi for every 1,000 Cedis. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAB Battery Ghana has embarked upon an aggressive media campaign to educate the public about what re-denomination entails. The new Ghana Cedi is now exchanging at a rate of $1 USD= Gh 0.56. Value Added Tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAC Battery The tax regime which started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime. In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%.

Agriculture

The country is mainly agricultural, with a majority of its workers engaged in farming. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAD Battery Ghana National Agricultural Export is the government arm that operates, maintains, overlooks the planting of cocoa, cashew etc. and other major crops for export. This agricultural arm of the government also harvests gold for export sales. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NBB Battery Since its inception, it has drastically assisted the government in stabilizing the economy and boosting it as illegal sales of the major crops/nuts have been meaningfully and instantly curbed and also rendering employment to thousands of Ghanaians. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCA Battery

Manufacturing

Ghana's industrial base is relatively advanced compared to many other African countries. Import-substitution industries include textiles; steel (using scrap); tires; oil refining; flour milling; beverages; tobacco; simple consumer goods; and car, truck, and bus assembly.Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCB Battery

Energy

Ghana gets 97% of its energy from damming lake Volta, and exports much of this to neighboring countries.

Services

Tourism has become one of Ghana's largest foreign income earners (ranking third in 1997),Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCC Battery and the Ghanaian Government has placed great emphasis upon further tourism support and development. The financial services in Ghana has seen a lot of reforms in the past years. Ghana through the Banking (Amendment) Act 2007 has include the awarding of General Banking license to qualified Banks and this allows Offshore Banks to operate in the country. Sony VAIO VGN-CS50B/W Battery Barclays Bank (Ghana) limited has become the first Bank in Ghana to be awarded the General Banking license in the Country. It has therefore become possible for non-resident individuals and foreign companies to open offshore Bank Accounts in Ghana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS51B/W Battery

Independence

At independence, Ghana had a substantial physical and social infrastructure and $481 million in foreign reserves. The Nkrumahgovernment further developed the infrastructure and made important public investments in the industrial sector. Sony VAIO VGN-CS52JB/W Battery With assistance from the United States, the World Bank, and the United Kingdom, construction of the Akosombo Dam was completed on the Volta River in 1966. Two U.S. companies built Valco, Africa's largest aluminium smelter, to use power generated at the dam. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/P Battery Aluminium exports from Valco were a major source of foreign exchange for Ghana. Many Nkrumah-era investments were monumental public works projects which were assets for the country, agricultural and industrial schemes. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/Q Battery With cocoa prices falling and the country's foreign exchange reserves fast disappearing, the government resorted to supplier credits to finance many projects. By the mid-1960s, Ghana's reserves were gone, and the country could not meet repayment schedules. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/R Battery To rationalize, the National Liberation Council abandoned unprofitable projects, and some inefficient state-owned enterprises were sold to private investors. On three occasions, Ghana's creditors agreed to reschedule repayments due on Nkrumah-era supplier credits.Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/P Battery Led by the United States, foreign donors provided import loans to enable the foreign exchange-strapped government to import essential commodities.

Acheampong government

To restructure the economy, the NRC, under General Acheampong (1972-78), Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/Q Battery undertook an austerity program that emphasized self-reliance, particularly in food production. These plans were not realised, however, primarily because of post-1973 oil price increases and a drought in 1975-77 that particularly affected northern Ghana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/R Battery The NRC, which had inherited foreign debts of almost $1 billion, abrogated existing rescheduling arrangements for some debts and rejected other repayments. After creditors objected to this unilateral action, a 1974 agreement rescheduled the medium-term debt on liberal terms. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/P Battery The NRC also imposed the Investment Policy Decree of 1975 effective on January 1977 that required 51% Ghanaian equity participation in most foreign firms, but the government took 40% in specified industries. Many shares were sold directly to the public. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/Q Battery

Akuffo government

Continued mismanagement of the economy, record inflation (more than 100% in 1977), and increasing corruption, notably at the highest political levels, led to growing dissatisfaction. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/R Battery The post-July 1978 military regime led by General Fred Akuffo attempted to deal with Ghana's economic problems by making small changes in the overvalued cedi and by restraining government spending and monetary growth. Sony VAIO VGN-CS71B/W Battery Under a one-year standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in January 1979, the government promised to undertake economic reforms, including a reduction of the budget deficit, in return for a $68 million IMF support program and $27 million in IMF Trust Fund loans. Sony VAIO VGN-CS72JB/W Battery The agreement became inoperative, however, after the 4 June coup that brought Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings and the AFRC to power for 3 months. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90HS Battery

Limann government

In September 1979, the civilian government of Hilla Limann inherited declining per capita income; stagnant industrial and agricultural production due to inadequate imported supplies; shortages of imported and locally produced goods; Sony VAIO VGN-CS90NS Battery a sizable budget deficit (almost 40% of expenditures in 1979); high inflation, "moderating" to 54% in 1979; an increasingly overvalued cedi; flourishing smuggling and other black-market activities; unemployment and underemployment, particularly among urban youth;Sony VAIO VGN-CS90S Battery deterioration in the transport network; and continued foreign exchange constraints. Limann's PNP government announced yet another (2-year) reconstruction program, emphasizing increased food production and productivity, exports, Sony VAIO VGN-CS91HS Battery and transport improvements. Import austerity was imposed and external payments arrears cut. However, declining cocoa production combined with falling cocoa prices, while oil prices soared. No effective measures were taken to reduce rampant corruption and black marketing. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91NS Battery While it was waiting for realisations from its 2 year plan, the Limann government was interrupted by a Coup staged by Flt. Lt. Jeremiah John Rawlings.

Rawlings government

When Rawlings again seized power at the end of 1981, Sony VAIO VGN-CS91S Battery cocoa output had fallen to half the 1970-71 level and its world price to one-third the 1975 level. By 1982, oil would constitute half of Ghana's imports, while overall trade contracted greatly. Internal transport had slowed to a crawl, and inflation remained high. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92DS Battery During Rawlings' first year, the economy was stagnant. Industry ran at about 10% of capacity due to the chronic shortage of foreign exchange to cover the importation of required raw materials and replacement parts. Economic conditions deteriorated further in early 1983 when Nigeria expelled an estimated 1 million Ghanaians who had to be absorbed by Ghana. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92JS Battery In April 1983, in coordination with the IMF, the PNDC launched an economic recovery program, perhaps the most stringent and consistent of its day in Africa, aimed at reopening infrastructural bottlenecks and reviving moribund productive sectors agriculture, mining, and timber. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92XS Battery The largely distorted exchange rate and prices were realigned to encourage production and exports. Increased fiscal and monetary discipline was imposed to curb inflation and to focus on priorities. Through November 1987, the cedi was devalued by more than 6,300%, and widespread direct price controls were substantially reduced. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11E Battery

Returning refugees

The economy's response to these reforms was initially hampered by the absorption of one million returnees from Nigeria, the onset of the worst drought since independence, Sony VAIO VGN-FW11L Battery which brought on widespread bushfires and forced closure of the aluminium smelter and severe power cuts for industry and decline in foreign aid. In 1985, the country absorbed an additional 100,000 expellees from Nigeria. In 1987, cocoa prices began declining again;Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M Battery however, initial infrastructure repairs, improved weather, and producer incentives and support revived output in the early 1990s. During 1984-88 the economy experienced solid growth for the first time since 1978. Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S Battery Renewed exports, aid inflows, and a foreign exchange auction have eased hard currency constraints.

IMF support

Since an initial August 1983 IMF standby agreement, Sony VAIO VGN-FW11ZU Battery the economic recovery program has been supported by three IMF standbys and two other credits totaling $611 million, $1.1 billion from the World Bank, and hundreds of millions of dollars more from other donors. In November 1987, the IMF approved a $318-million, 3-year extended fund facility. Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H Battery The second phase (1987-90) of the recovery program concentrated on economic restructuring and revitalizing social services. The third phase, focused on financial transparency and macroeconomic stability is scheduled for March 1998. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140AE Battery Ghana intends to achieve its goals of accelerated economic growth, improved quality of life for all Ghanaians, and reduced poverty through macroeconomic stability, higher private investment, broad-based social and rural development, as well as direct poverty-alleviation efforts. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140D Battery These plans are fully supported by the international donor community and have been forcefully reiterated in the 1995 government report, Ghana: Vision 2020. Privatization of state-owned enterprises continues, with about two-thirds of 300 parastatal enterprises sold to private owners. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E Battery Other reforms adopted under the government's structural adjustment program include the elimination of exchange rate controls and the lifting of virtually all restrictions on imports. The establishment of an interbank foreign exchange markethas greatly expanded access to foreign exchange. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/H Battery The medium-term macroeconomic forecast assumes political stability, successful economic stabilization, and the implementation of a policy agenda for private sector growth, and adequate public spending on social services and rural infrastructure. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/W Battery The ninth Consultative Group Meeting for Ghana ended 5 November 1997 after deliberations in Paris. Twenty-four countries and donor entities were represented at this meeting called by the World Bank on behalf of the Ghanaian Government. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140FE Battery The World Bank announced that, of the targeted disbursement level of $1.6 billion sought from the donor community for 1998-99, they foresaw only a $150 million shortfall in commitments, and that this shortfall would be easily realized should Ghana rapidly enact its macroeconomic program. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N Battery The government repealed a 17% value-added tax (VAT) shortly after its introduction in 1995, which resulted in widespread public protests. The government reverted to several previously imposed taxes, including a sales tax. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N/W Battery The government has set in motion a program to reintroduce a VAT bill, with implementation in 1998 after an extensive public education campaign. Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E/W Battery ,Sony VAIO VGN-FW160AE Battery